康熙全面禁教

雍正對天主教的態度

　　本文曾在第二章提及，天主教在清初時期受到清廷一定程度的開放，爾後卻因與羅馬教廷的「禮儀之爭」，而導致康熙全面禁教之事。[1]

　　天主教自明末利瑪竇傳入中國至今，大約可分為三個階段──自開始到康熙末年下禁教令為第一期，約一百三、四十年，也是開創期。可惜好景不長，到了康熙末年，因教會內部對中國禮儀起了爭端，即對祀孔、祭祖和使用「天」和「上帝」的名稱是否屬於異端的問題。康熙帝與羅馬教宗之間的「禮儀之爭」（或稱「教儀之爭」）[2] 愈演愈烈，羅馬教宗更下令禁止中國教民祭祖、祭孔，這一涉及中國禮俗的行動導致了康熙下諭禁傳天主教，由此也開始了第二階段，即是禁教期。接著雍正、乾隆、嘉慶、直到道光，相繼重申禁教令，天主教的傳播完全處於地下活動狀態，直到鴉片戰爭解除教禁為止，這一時期也約有一百三、四十年。此後，自道光末年開禁至今為第三期，這一階段可稱為天主教復興發展期。[3]

　　本文主要探討雍正對天主教的態度，有關雍正禁止天主教一事，究竟是純粹繼承康熙的禁教令，還是另有政治因素存在，這也是許多論及天主教教難的相關論著中都會提及的。有說「雍正一朝，對教友總沒有向康熙那樣和善優容過，因此更加敵視教會。」[4] 尤其是雍正對同為宗室的蘇努一家因信奉天主教而受到的嚴重殘害，更是彰顯雍正對天主教的厭惡態度。但蘇努一族，除了信奉天主教，嚴重的違反《大清律》中「旗人不得信教」的律例外，又因蘇努曾助皇八子允祀（或作示異）謀取帝位，更為雍正所忌恨。兩種因素追根究底都與政治、權勢有關。

　　在天主教的相關書籍多以傳教士捲入清朝宮廷儲位鬥爭為雍正禁教的主要原因。首先略述在雍正年間，蘇努一族因信奉天主教的下場，繼而探討雍正對天主教的態度。

　　在康熙末年，皇太子允礽復廢之際，康熙的諸皇子各自攘奪儲位，謀取太子，各樹黨羽。其中第九皇子允示唐和第八皇子允祀（或作示異）；前者對天主教有好感，有葡籍教士穆敬遠與之來往親密；後者受到了信天主教的貝勒蘇努和他兒子們的擁護。有說「因此雍正登基以後，立即對他們進行殘酷的鎮壓。他的皇兄皇弟，五人死在獄中，穆敬遠神父被絞死（或說毒死），蘇努全家被發配到西寧。因為這事牽扯到教士和教友，所以雍正對天主教抱著懷疑和憎恨的態度。」[5]

　　蘇努是清太祖努爾哈赤的四世孫，與雍正是從昆弟行，頗受康熙的信任，前後作過纂修玉牒的總裁官，以輔國公、鎮國公任都統，治領八旗滿洲蒙古全軍、奉天將軍等，可謂功在朝廷。蘇努有子十三人，全家大小共七十四口，都先後入天主教，並且極其虔誠。在蘇努諸子中，最虔誠熱心的是第六子勒什亨和第十二子烏爾陳，結果二人在雍正元年二月初十，一同被發往西寧充軍；爾後在雍正二年五月，雍正將蘇努一族男女老幼七十四口和僕婢三百多人全發往塞外右衛。蘇努不久就死在右衛，雍正又差官吏往右衛把他的子孫等人，鎖拿到京，遞去黃帶子，除去宗室名，將為庶人，然後再發往右衛。到了雍正四年正月，將允示唐（或作神）、允祀（或作示異），以及蘇努等人削去宗籍；五月又依大逆罪將蘇努戳屍揚灰，抄沒家產。[6]

　　雍正將蘇努全家治罪的原因，在天主教的相關論著中則多認為：「第一是據稱蘇努及其子曾幫助允祀謀取帝位，為雍正所忌恨。第二是因蘇努一家都虔信天主教，又為雍正所深惡痛絕。」[7] 撇開謀取儲位的政治因素不說，雍正真的如此厭惡天主教嗎？

　　雖然雍正對天主教的禁教令基本上是繼承前朝政策，但在後來也稍有變動。其實康熙末年禁止天主教的法令實行並不徹底，雍正元年（1723年），浙江總督覺羅滿保重新提出查禁的建議，請奏將通曉技藝又願赴京效力的送到北京，其餘一律送到澳門安插。雍正同意他的要求，指令地方官做好西洋人的遷移澳門事務，勿使其勞苦。爾後，雍正又同意不必盡送澳門，可在廣州等候該國船來搭乘回國，其中老弱不願去的，令其居住於廣州天主堂內，但不許出外傳教。同年十二月，經禮部議准，並將其它地方的天主堂一律改為公所，入教的民人令他們放棄信仰。雍正還說「朕於西洋教法，原無深惡痛絕之處，但念於我中國聖人之道，無甚裨益，不過聊從眾議耳。爾其詳加酌量，若果無害，則異域遠人自應一切從寬。爾或不達朕意，繩之過嚴，則又不是矣。特諭。」[8]

　　所以，西洋人只要沒有大惡，應從寬對待，不要繩之過嚴。因此，雍正禁止天主教傳教，用意是在不許中國人傳教，尤其不准滿人崇信。雖然蘇努因是允祀黨羽而遭到打擊，但雍正也多次指責他那些信教的兒子背祖宗、違朝廷的罪過。[9] 浙江巡撫李衛在上奏地方上信教情形時，還特地說明「駐防旗下亦染此風」。他們君臣怕人民信奉天主教後，而違背儒家的綱常大義。[10]

　　雍正和康熙一樣禁止西洋人傳教，把他們驅逐到澳門，或集中於廣州，以防範他們深入民間，影響民眾思想。但雍正在驅逐時，強調做好護送工作，且在人身上保證他們的安全，之後又允許居留廣州。這就是雍正最初處理西方宗教的態度，做的有節制，態度還算溫和。不過雍正將各地之傳教士陸續集中到廣州，就算是在康熙年間有領票傳教資格的傳教士也不例外，這一點雍正確實已改變了康熙的作法。

　　雍正三年，羅馬教皇派遣使臣朝見雍正，祝賀他的登基。雍正深感滿意，表示對來華的西洋人，只要他們「慎首法度，行止無愆」，一定「推恩撫恤」。同時，在符合釋放的條件下，同意教皇的請求，釋放康熙時期被囚禁的傳教士。因此，綜合上述所言，雍正最初對天主教、西洋人並無惡感，否則雍正也不會頭帶西洋的髮式作畫了。雍正之所以禁止傳教，是因為不許中國人信教，尤其不准滿人崇信，同時也害怕百姓因信仰天主教後，唯聽命教主而違背儒家的鋼常大義。

　　到了雍正五年（1727年）一月二十六日，雍正特降旨召見了在北京為清廷服務的二十名傳教士，並設宴進行款待，這是一個不尋常的舉動，尤其在歷經康熙朝的全面禁教之後。受召見的傳教士們感到這「是一次前所未有、異乎尋常的榮譽」。在召見過程中，雍正從傳教士處了解了有關歐洲方面的戰事情況以及天主教和東正教有何不同，並十分讚賞義大利畫家、朗士寧的油畫、巴多明的翻譯以及法國宋君榮繪制的地圖。並且還告訴傳教士們：有人指責天主教不孝敬父母，對此傳教士們也做了解釋。席間，雍正還告訴傳教士們說：葡萄牙使節麥德樂已從廣州動身前來北京。此次會見後，雍正還送給參見會見的傳教士一些禮物。從這件事不難看出，雍正對那些為清廷服務的，遵守中國法度的傳教士態度是友好的，對他們在中國還是歡迎的。

　　爾後，當年四月，葡萄牙使節麥德樂到達北京。麥德樂首先會見了在北京的傳教士們。傳教士們向他介紹了清廷關於天主教的政策。麥德樂在得知羅馬教皇寫給雍正的兩封信中所提出的問題，基本上得到了解決的鼓舞下，準備在雍正召見他時，向清政府提出兩項要求：一、歸還各省的天主教堂；二、要求准許天主教在中國自由傳教。當時，有些傳教士勸他不要這樣做，因為這些要求和清廷的政策相違背，而且由他提出也不合適。麥德樂不聽，果真在四月初八，雍正召見他時提出上述兩項要求。雍正聽後很反感，也很生氣，對麥德樂提出的兩項要求，當即做了否定性的答覆。並且當天還發了一道上諭：「中國有中國之教，西洋有西洋之教。西洋之教不必行於中國，亦如中國之教豈能行於西洋？如蘇努之子烏爾陳等愚昧不法，背祖宗，違朝廷，甘蹈刑戮而不恤，豈不怪乎？」[11]

　　之後，在北京的傳教士們聽到這一消息，也都對麥德樂的行為感到不滿。麥德樂雖然很後悔，但對於他所造成的麻煩，那些傳教士們也不知該怎麼辦，也不知該如何跟雍正打交道了。不久麥德樂便乘船返回歐洲。之後，雍正對天主教的態度變得更加嚴厲，因而有人說，雍正敲響了天主教在中國的喪鍾。

　　麥德樂雖然走了，但他此行中國卻造成對天主教的不良影響。雍正五年六月初一（西元1727年7月21日），雍正在圓明園召見了在北京的許多傳教士，並對他們發表了一次長篇講話，除了向傳教士們講述自己斷然拒絕麥德樂提出的兩項要求外，又著重闡述了清廷有關天主教的政策，從中更反映了雍正本人的宗教觀──這即是本文所欲彰顯的。此書信內容據宋君榮神父致耶穌會蓋雅爾神父的信中，大致內容如下：[12]

朕允許爾等留住京城和廣州，允許爾等從這裡到廣州，又從廣州往歐洲通信，這已足夠了。不是有好多人控告爾等嗎！不過朕了解爾等是好人。倘若是一位比朕修養差的君主，早就將爾等驅逐出境了。麥德樂向朕提出要發執照，好讓朕知道爾等皆是好人，朕不想那樣做。朕會懲罰惡人，會認識誰是好人。但是，朕不需要傳教士，倘若朕派和尚到爾等歐洲各國去，爾等的國王也是不會允許的嘛。

漢明帝任用印度僧人，唐太宗任用西藏喇嘛，這兩位君主因此受到中國人的憎惡。先皇讓爾等在各省建立教堂，亦有損聖譽。對此，朕作為一個滿洲人，曾竭力反對。朕豈能容許這些有損于先皇聲譽的教堂存在？朕豈能幫助爾等引入那種反對中國大道的教義？豈能像他人一樣讓此教義得以推廣？喇嘛教最接近爾等的教，而儒教則與爾等的之教相距甚遠。爾等錯了！爾等人眾不過二十，卻要攻擊其它一切教義。須知爾等所具有的好的東西，中國人的身上也都具有，然爾等也有和中國各種教派一樣的荒唐可笑之處。爾等稱天為天主，其實這是一回事。在回民居住的最小村莊裡，都有一個敬天的「爸爸」（即阿訇──譯者），他們也說他們的教義是最好的。和我們一樣，爾等有十誡，這是好的，可是爾等卻有一個成為人的神（指耶穌──譯者），還有什麼永恆的苦和永恆的樂，這是神話，是再荒唐不過了。

佛教是用來紀念佛以便敬佛的。人們既不是拜人佛，也不是拜木頭偶像。佛教是天，或者用爾等的話說，佛就是天主。難道爾等的天主像不也是爾等自己畫的嗎？如同爾教一樣，佛也有化身，也有轉世，這是荒唐的。難道我們滿洲人在我們的祭祀中所豎立的杆子（指索羅杆子）不如爾等的十字架荒唐嗎？（原文如此──譯者）在儒生、喇嘛、和尚當中都很少有人理解他們那一套教義，就像爾等當中很少有人理解爾等的教義一樣。大多數歐洲人大談什麼天主呀，大談天主無時不在、無所不在呀，大談什麼天堂、地獄呀等等，其實他們也不明白他們所講的究竟是什麼。有誰見過這些？又有誰看不出來這一套只不過是為了欺騙小民的？以後爾等可常來朕前，朕要開導開導爾等。[13]

雖然雍正的這段長篇大論，只能在有限的場合說，但卻也反應出雍正對各種宗教都有基本的認識與熟悉。而且，雍正很有選擇性的吸收，並清楚指出各派教義的問題所在，理信而不迷信，是一個帝王應有的態度。

　　雍正之所以禁止天主教傳播，表面上看來有兩個原因：一是天主教教義和中國封建社會的傳統的儒家思想發生了矛盾，而且相距甚遠，這是康熙末年「禮儀之爭」的延續效應。第二是正如雍正所言：「中國有中國之教，西洋人之教不必行於中國。」此外，依筆者推度還有一隱藏原因才是最重要的，也符合雍正身為統治者未雨綢繆的心態，那就是為了防止天主教勢力過大。且看雍正在雍正元年（1723年）十二月底，對在京的傳教士巴多明、馮秉正以及費隱三教士長達一刻鍾的長篇訓示：

（前略）利馬竇於萬曆初年來中國，當時人們的作法與我無關。不過那時你們的人數微不足道，並非各省都有你們的人和教堂。到我父皇朝，你們到處設立教堂，你們的教也迅速傳播。以前我目睹這狀況，但未敢一言。現在你們不要想能像欺騙我父皇一樣地欺騙我。

我知道你們的宗旨是使所有中國人入你們的教。但果真如此，我們將成為一種什麼人？教徒只聽你們的話，一但有事，他們唯你們的命是聽。這一點現在雖不必慮及，但當千舟萬船來我海岸時，必將產生擾亂。

中國北有俄羅斯，不可小看；南有西洋人和他們的國家，也不可小看，西有策妄的阿喇布坦，我要阻止他入內，不使他擾亂中國。沙皇使臣曾請許莫斯科人在各省通商，我已拒絕，只許他們在北京及邊境貿易。現在我准許你們在北京和廣州居住。你們如有怨言，則北京和廣州也不能居住。我不願在各省有你們的人。我父皇先皇帝屈就你們深入各省，頗為文人學士所不滿。我在位之日，將不允許我們古賢所立之法規有任何變更，人們對我也將無非議。將來我的兒子，我的孫子當上皇位後如何做法，是他們的事；至少我不像萬曆，不會和他一樣做法。[14]

　　再從另一個角度來看，儘管自康熙到雍正年間，清廷屢下禁令，禁止天主教傳教，但卻屢禁不止。雖然其中有很多原因，但最重要的是因為天主教的活動總的來說，並沒有對清王朝的統治造成直接威脅，也沒有發生天主教徒武裝反抗朝廷的事件。再加上，朝廷還是必須留有少數精通天文、曆法、測量的傳教士在政府部門任職。因而天主教在禁教期間，傳教士仍然活動于教徒中間，天主教堂依然存在，是禁而不絕。雍正雖然禁止天主教在內地傳教，但對留京的十多位傳教士還是相當寬容，教堂仍由教士居用。

　　因此，雖然雍正是主張儒釋道三教合一的人，但對於西方宗教，雍正明顯沒有拉攏的意思，而且還要擔心天主教勢力過大，當然不能允許各省都有天主教的人，尤其是各國天主教會所隱含的西方勢力。這個因素追根究底還是與政治統治相關，與前面所提及的兩個因素，彼此也是互有關聯。雖然雍正也明說「這一點現在雖不必慮及，但當千舟萬船來我海岸時，必將產生擾亂。」但是，在道光年間（1840年）鴉片戰爭爆發前後，外國教會勢力宗教外的侵華行為，以及強迫簽訂多項不平等條約，使得中國的主權遭到破壞，清廷已不能按自己的意志依照司法程序獨立地審理教案，而要受到外國的挾制。這證明了雍正當年禁教顧慮的設想是多方面而長遠的。

　　此外，對於雍正禁教的原因，並不單單因耶穌教會是他在儲位鬥爭中政敵的支持者等政治因素而已。據清史學家莊吉發所指出：

促成清世宗禁教的原因很多，其中經濟因素亦不容忽視。康熙年間曾經降旨禁止輸米出海，惟沿海地方輸運米石出海的流弊，仍未盡除。雍正七年（1729年）監察御史伊拉齊經訪查後據折奏稱：「向年原有無賴小民將內地米食私載小船偷出界發賣，希圖重價。因有沿海地方居住之西洋人收買，載入大船出洋。蓋小民偷運，人數無多，夜行晝伏，官兵不及覺查，此往日所有之弊。」伊拉齊又訪得松江府城天主堂內有西洋人名叫畢登榮、莫滿二人居住，扥言養病，常出門拜客，地方士民多有歸其教者，西洋貿易船只往返走洋，難免無偷賣米石之弊。[15]

　　但總的來說，天主教在清初康雍時期傳入的勢力與動機，與咸豐、道光二朝以後所傳入的帝國侵略勢力大不相同。因此，清初的禁教原因也與清末禁教的時代背景因素不同。　　

　　清初時期，清廷雖屢頒諭旨查辦教案，然而紳民與教徒衝突案件，實屬罕見；而且清初國勢鼎盛，中央政權相當鞏固，中外之間並未簽訂不平等條約。西洋傳教士自利馬竇以來，從他們的直接動機和實際行動來看，大多是由於高漲的宗教熱忱催動他們來華的步履，此輩多是虔誠的佈道者，主要目的是為傳布福音，並充當文化使者的角色，在明知清廷已下令禁教，傳教士們仍甘願冒險犯難，以傳播福音，並未恃條約為庇護，其傳教事業也並未滲入殖民侵略性質，尤不至於威脅中國人民的尊嚴與權益。

　　但清季咸豐、道光二朝以降，清廷仇教排外的主要原因就不同了：傳統儒家的正邪觀念與闢異端的精神，是中國士大夫仇教的思想背景；而傳教士進入內地後，威脅縉紳以維護傳統文化為己任的尊嚴及其在社會上的特殊地位與權益。再加上傳教士倚恃不平等條約深入內地傳教，並干涉地方行政，其傳教事業遂滲入侵略性質。

　　雖然在清初時期，由於基督教與中國文化的沖撞，清廷採取了「禁教」政策。其後的一百多年，統治者用「閉關鎖國」的方法，「鞏固」老大天朝，而西方國家卻進行了轟轟烈烈的工業革命。當十八世紀末，傳教士再一次扣響中國大門之時，中西雙方的實力和地位已不可同日而語了。有了強大的國家實力作後盾，西方傳教士徹底放棄了利馬竇時代謙遜忍讓的態度，盛氣凌人地獲取了在華傳教的特權。雖然仍以虔誠、正直，以傳播福音為唯一宗旨的傳教士大有人在，但在鴉片戰爭的硝煙中，最引人注目的還是「用戰爭把中國開放給基督」的狂妄叫囂。

　　鴉片戰爭是中國歷史上的一個重要轉折點，帝國主義的侵略打斷了中國社會自身的歷史進程，用大砲轟開了中國禁教之門，也改變了基督教在華傳播的狀況及其作用，傳教問題經常成為中西衝突甚至戰爭的導火線。在公元1842年，英國侵略軍強迫中國政府簽訂的第一個不平等條約──《南京條約》中便規定：「耶穌、天主教原係為善之道，自後有傳教者來到中國，一體保護。」1844年，中美簽訂《望廈條約》，第17款寫明：除了傳教士能在五口傳教外，「還可以建立教堂」。在這些不平等條約的庇護下，基督教各派，在口岸城市迅速傳布。然而，外國傳教士並不滿足於僅在口岸城市傳教，他們仍以各種形式私自潛入內地傳教。

　　咸豐八年（1858年），法國藉傳教自由權為名，聯合英國，悍然發動了第二次鴉片戰爭。在侵略列強的砲口之下，驚慌失措的清政府被迫分別與俄、美、英、法等國簽訂《天津條約》，其中都對傳教事項作有規定。雖文字措詞不盡相同，但主旨都是要求開放讓基督教自由傳教，中國官方予以保護，不得苛待禁阻。自此，「教禁」大開，外國人可以在中國土地上自由傳教。到了咸豐十年（1860年），英、法、俄等國又分別強迫清政府訂立《北京條約》，除了重申《天津條約》中有關教務方面的規定外，法國傳教士還感不足，擔任使團翻譯的孟振生在《中法北京續約》的中文本中還私自添上了「並任法國傳教士在各省租賣田地，建造自便」的字句（這在條約法文本中是沒有的）。外國傳教士不但利用不平等條約獲得了購置田產的自由，並且強迫清政府同意將給還教堂舊址的內容寫進條約中。因此，第二次鴉片戰爭後，基督教在全國各地迅速發展，中國內地門戶向西方宗教全面洞開，實際上是侵華列強通過英法聯軍之役而攫得的權益。

　　再看看當時其他傳教士的活動情形，由於傳教士長期在華活動，了解中國的語言、歷史和文化，掌握中國官場的內幕，因而英國東印度公司經常雇用傳教士參與鴉片貿易。鴉片戰爭爆發後，許多傳教士乾脆直接受雇於侵略軍，為本國政府利益服務。也有傳教士參與了戰爭，提供或搜集軍事情報，並以堅船利砲為後盾，利用不平等條約的特權，加速了傳教活動。甚至有傳教士直接參與政治活動，直接充任侵略軍的官員或譯員，在談判桌上為本國爭取好處。至於以各種藉口和身分參與政務者，或是以學術研究為名收集中國政治、經濟情報者更是司空見慣之事，僅從脅迫清廷訂立不平等條約的事局當中，即可見其一斑。

　　此時期在華活動的傳教士，不再僅靠教會組織，除了從軍、從政外，還有與致力於殖民掠奪的商人相連結，而直接得到商人的資助和供養，甚至親自參與商務活動。由於傳教士與商人的密切活動，使其在總體上互補互促，相得益彰，「商戰」、「教戰」聲威并狀。因此，鴉片戰爭前後，傳教士所充當的實際角色，由原本單一變為多重，除了「教」而外，亦「商」、亦「軍」、亦「政」。傳教士的參政，不僅僅限於簽約談判以及供職服務于各國政府，還表現在以多種身分和方式對中國政務的直接干涉。這在以後的教案中表現的很明顯，顯然此時傳教士在中國社會的作用與腳色已發生根本性的轉變，他們在中國披著傳教的外衣，專事欺壓中國人民，以不平等條約謀取私利，壓榨中國，更增加了基督教的侵略性。這與清初康雍時期，甘於冒險犯難來華佈教的傳教士不可同日而語。[16]

　　當年雍正禁教時所說的「這一點現在雖不必慮及，但當千舟萬船來我海岸時，必將產生擾亂。」的顧慮竟不幸在一百多年後成真了。

　　雖然本文主要為探究雍正的宗教觀，以彰顯雍正對西方宗教的態度。但在涉及天主教遭雍正禁教的原因時，又不免要提及清初康熙與羅馬教廷的「禮儀之爭」，以及清初與清末禁教背景因素的差異。但因與本論文的研究主題並無直接的關係，以及本附錄純為補充說明，以令讀者對雍正除了在佛教方面的了解外，也能從另一種角度來看雍正對於西方宗教的態度，故筆者未能搜集更多的直接史料來作天主教方面進一步的論證。因此，特別說明，本文中所引資料，多為現代人的著作。[17]


[1] 參本文第二章第一節〈清朝前期的宗教策略〉。

[2] 明清之際，朝廷原本不反對天主教等西方宗教的傳播，是因為明代時期，以義大利人利瑪竇為代表的耶穌會傳教士，在中國逐漸了打開了局面，利瑪竇為了順應廣大漢民族原有的多神信仰與祭天、祭祖、祭孔等傳統的宗教習俗，而入鄉隨俗將「天主教儒學化」，使天主教的教義能適應中國的國情與宗教習俗，利用儒家經典的文字來解釋基督教義，平緩文字義理上的差異（此與東晉道安法師以老莊玄學解釋般若思想，而產生的『格義佛教』有雷同之處），減少西方宗教進入中國的阻力，使得天主教能在中國順利傳播。但利瑪竇去世後，龍華民接替了主教職務，他一改利瑪竇對中國傳統宗教順應的態度，多次著書說明中國人信奉的天並非基督教的上帝，而是自然神，一再挑明兩教間的差異與優劣，終於引發西方基督教文化與中國傳統文化之間的衝突，便是明朝歷史上有名的「南京教案」（明萬曆四十四年，公元1616年），成為中國教案之始。到清初時期，原本自明末基督教東傳以來，中國的傳教活動一直由葡萄牙支持的耶穌會控制。17世紀中葉以後，葡萄牙國是衰落，西班牙支持的多明我會、方濟各會，以及法國支持的外方傳教會相繼進入中國。這些傳教士多不懂中文，又不了解中國的國情，不能理解利瑪竇當時「天主教儒學化」的苦心，不滿耶穌會在中國的傳教策略，並對耶穌會的一些寬容措施提出了非難，堅持天主教一神教的教義，再加上羅馬教廷的僵硬政策，發布禁令禁止中國教徒祭天、祭祖、祭孔，以及其他一些涉及民俗的活動或祭祀禮儀，要求中國的天主教徒嚴守天主教戒律。羅馬教皇此舉無異宣佈中國的天主教徒必須放棄本民族的文化傳統與信仰。於是禮儀之爭演化成為兩種文化、兩個民族以致清廷與羅馬教廷的全面對抗。羅馬教皇的固執與傲慢，使得兩者間的衝突越演越烈，教皇一再的重申禁令，從而挑起了這場「中國禮儀之爭」。最後終於激起了康熙帝的憤怒，推行全面禁教的政策，這「禮儀之爭」即是天主教在中國招致禁教的起因；但很明顯，教義之爭的背後已帶上了列強爭奪勢力範圍的陰影。有關《康熙與羅馬使節關係文書》，對於中國的敬天、祭孔、祀祖等禮節習俗辯駁情形，以及諭旨和書信等等史料，由北京故宮博物院文獻館所輯之《文獻叢編》，曾刊選14件，俱為康熙處理天主教教案的原始資料。

[3] 參張澤著《清代禁教期的天主教》，台北：光啟出版社，1992，頁11~12。

[4] 參穆啟蒙．侯景文譯《中國天主教史》，台北：光啟出版社，1971，頁97。

[5] 張澤《清代禁教期的天主教》，1992，頁30。

[6] 對於蘇努一族所受到的殘害，筆者只是略為敘述而已，多數的天主教論著也都是站在「教友蒙難」的立場描述此事。詳見徐宗澤《中國天主教傳教史概論》（收錄於《民國叢書 第二編11哲學．宗教類》，上海書局據中華書局1933年影印本）頁245~253。以及張澤《清代禁教期的天主教》，1992，頁42~47；穆啟蒙．侯景文譯《中國天主教史》，1971，頁97。

[7] 參張澤著《清代禁教期的天主教》，台北：光啟出版社，1992，頁42；以及穆啟蒙．侯景文譯《中國天主教史》，1971，頁97；徐宗澤《中國天主教傳教史概論》（出版項目同上注）頁247。

[8] 參莊吉發〈清代教案史料的搜集與編纂〉，收錄於《清代史料論述》(一)，台北：文史哲出版社，1979，頁142。原文引自《硃批諭旨》。

[9] 參馮爾康《雍正傳》，1992，頁467，原書引自《雍正朝起居注》，五年四月出八日摺；並參閱《陳垣學術論文集．雍乾間奉天主教之宗室》，中華書局，1980年版。

[10] 參馮爾康《雍正傳》，1992，頁467。

[11] 參雍正五年農曆四月初八上諭，另參張澤著《清代禁教期的天主教》，台北：光啟出版社，1992，頁32與46。

[12] 此封書信內容，筆者整理自張澤《清代禁教期的天主教》，台北：光啟出版社，1992，頁32~33。以及杜文凱編〈有關雍正和天主教的幾封信〉，收錄於《清代西人見聞錄》，中國人民大學出版社，1985，頁144~146。

[13] 杜文凱編〈有關雍正和天主教的幾封信〉，收錄於《清代西人見聞錄》，中國人民大學出版社，1985，頁144~146。

[14] 張澤《清代禁教期的天主教》，1992，頁31。

[15] 莊吉發〈清代教案史料的搜集與編纂〉，收錄於《清代史料論述》(一)，台北：文史哲出版社，1979，頁143~144。

[16] 參董叢林著《龍與上帝──基督教與中國傳統文化》，北京：生活．讀書．新知三聯書店，1992，頁135~141。

[17] 本附錄資料整理自以下諸書：馮爾康《雍正傳》，1992，頁465~469。楊啟樵《雍正帝及其密摺制度研究》，1985，頁276~279。莊吉發〈清代教案史料的搜集與編纂〉，收錄於《清代史料論述》(一)，1979，頁142~144。以及牟鍾鑒、張踐著《中國宗教通史》，2000，頁943~948、1002~1006。杜文凱編《清代西人見聞錄．有關雍正和天主教的幾封信》，1985，頁144~146。徐宗澤《中國天主教傳教史概論》，1933，頁245~253。張澤《清代禁教期的天主教》，1992，頁42~47。穆啟蒙．侯景文譯《中國天主教史》，1971，頁97。董叢林《龍與上帝──基督教與中國傳統文化》，1992，頁135~141。詳細出版項目參閱本文所附之【徵引暨參考書目】。感謝黃運喜老師提供部分有關天主教的相關書目。

　

　

　

The Diary of Matthew Ricci, in Matthew Ricci, China in the Sixteenth Century, trans Louis Gallagher, (New York: Random House, 1942, 1970)

from The Diary of Matthew Ricci, in Matthew Ricci, China in the Sixteenth Century, trans Louis Gallagher, (New York: Random House, 1942, 1970), as excerpted in Mark A. Kishlansky, Sources of World History, Vol. 1 (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), p. 269-273

[Kishlansky Introduction] Matteo Ricci (1552-1610 CE) was born into a noble Italian family. At the age of 16 he was sent to Rome to study law but became more interested in the new science that was sweeping Western Europe. He studied mathematics and astronomy and then petitioned to join the Jesuits. He was sent on a Jesuit mission to the Far East and studied for the priesthood in east India. He was assigned the difficult task of organizing a mission to China, a task at which earlier Jesuit missionaries had failed. Ricci learned the Chinese language with such proficiency that he persuaded officials to allow him into the country where he taught Chinese intellectuals about mathematics and science and published the first six books of Euclid's Elements in Chinese. After a long delay he was finally allowed to enter the closed City of Peking in 1601, where he stayed for the rest of his life teaching science, mathematics, and Christianity to Chinese intellectuals.

Ricci's most important published work was his History of the Introduction of Christianity into China. But the journals that he kept and edited for publication allow one of the few glimpses of an outsider's view of Chinese society and government during a period when China was closed to foreign visitors. In this selection Ricci describes Chinese government.

We shall touch upon this subject only insofar as it has to do with the purpose of our narrative. It would require a number of chapters, if not of whole books, to treat in full detail... Chinese imperial power passes on from father to son, or to other royal kin as does our own. Two or three of the more ancient kings are known to have bequeathed the throne to successors without out royal relationship rather than to their sons, whom they judged to be unfitted to rule. More than once, however., it has happened that the people, growing weary of an inept ruler, have stripped him of his authority and replaced him with someone preeminent for character and courage whom they henceforth recognized as their legitimate King. It may be said in praise of the Chinese that. ordinarily they would prefer to die an honorable death rather than swear allegiance to a usurping monarch. In fact, there is a proverb extant among their philosophers, which reads: "No woman is moral who has two husbands, nor any vassal faithful to two lords."

There are no ancient laws in China under which the republic is governed in perpetuum, such as our laws of the twelve tables and the Code of Caesar. Whoever succeeds in getting possession of the throne, regardless of his ancestry, makes new laws according to his own way of thinking. His successors on the throne are obliged to enforce the laws which he promulgated as founder of the dynasty, and these laws cannot be changed without good reason....

***

The extent of their kingdom is so vast. its borders so distant, and their utter lack of knowledge of a transmaritime world is so complete that the Chinese imagine the whole world as included in their kingdom. Even now, as from time beyond recording, they call their Emperor, Thiencu, the Son of Heaven, and because they worship Heaven as the Supreme Being, the Son of Heaven and the Son of God are one and the same. In ordinary speech, he is referred to as Hoamsi, meaning supreme ruler or monarch, while other and subordinate rulers are called by the much inferior title of Guam.

Only such as have earned a doctor's degree or that of licentiate are admitted to take part in the government of the kingdom, and due to the interest of the magistrates and of the King him self there is no lack of such candidates. Every public office is therefore fortified with and dependent on the attested science, prudence, and diplomacy of the person assigned to it whether he be taking office for the first time or is already experienced in the conduct of civil life. This integrity of life is prescribed by... law... and for the most part it is lived up to, save in the case of such as are prone to violate the dictates of justice from human weakness and from lack of religious training among the gentiles. All magistrates, whether they belong to the military or to the civil congress, are called Quon-fu, meaning commander or president, though their honorary or unofficial title is Lau-ye or Lau-sie, signifying lord or father. The Portuguese call the Chinese magistrates. mandarins, probably from mandando, mando mandare, to order or command, and they are now generally known by this title in Europe.

Though we have already stated that the Chinese form of government. is monarchical, it must be evident from what has been said, and it will be made clearer by what is to come, that it is to some extent an aristocracy. Although all legal statutes inaugurated by magistrates must be confirmed by the King in writing on the written petition presented to him, the King himself makes no final decision in important matters of state without consulting the magistrates or considering their advice....

***

Tax returns, impost, and other tribute, which undoubtedly exceed a hundred and fifty million a year, as is commonly said, do not go into the Imperial Exchequer, nor can the king dispose of this income as he pleases. The silver, which is the common currency, is placed in the public treasuries, and the returns paid in rice are placed in the warehouses belonging to the government. The generous allowance made for the support of the royal family and their relatives, for the palace eunuchs and the royal household, is drawn from the national treasury. In keeping with the regal splendor and dignity of the crown, these annuities are large, but each individual account is determined and regulated by law. Civil and military accounts and expenses of all government departments are paid out of this national treasury, and the size of the national budget is far in excess of what Europeans might imagine. Public buildings, the palaces of the King and of his relations, the upkeep of city prisons and fortresses, and the renewal of all kinds of war supplies must be met by the national treasury, and in a kingdom of such vast dimensions the program of building and of restoration is continuous. One would scarcely believe that at times even these enormous revenues are not sufficient to meet. the expenses. When this happens, new taxes are imposed to balance the national budget.

Relative to the magistrates in general, there are two distinct orders or grades. The first and superior order is made up of the magistrates who govern the various courts of the royal palace, which is considered to be a model for the rule of the entire realm. The second order includes all provincial magistrates or governors who rule a province or a city. For each of these orders of magistrates, there are five or six large books containing the governmental roster of the entire country. These books are for sale throughout the kingdom. They are being continually revised, and the revision, which is dated twice a month in the royal city of Peking, is not very difficult because of the singular typographical arrangement in which they are printed. The entire contents of these books consist of nothing other than the current lists of the names, addresses, and grades of the court officers of the entire government, and the frequent revision is necessary if the roster is to be kept up to date. In addition to the daily changes, occasioned by deaths, demotions, and dismissals in such an incredibly long list of names, there are the frequent departures of some to visit their homes at. stated periods. We shall say more later on of this last instance, which is occasioned by the custom requiring every magistrate to lay aside his official duties and return to his home for three full years, on the death of his father or his mother. One result of these numerous changes is that there are always a great many in the city of Peking awaiting the good fortune of being appointed to the vacancies thus created.

Besides the classes or orders of the magistrates already described and many others which we shall pass over because they differ but little from our own, there are two special orders never heard of among our people. These are the Choli and the- Zauli, each consisting of sixty or more chosen philosophers. all prudent men arid tried. who have -already given exceptional proof of their fidelity to the King and to the realm. These two orders are reserved by the King for business of greater moment pertaining to the royal court or to the provinces, and by him they are entrusted with the great responsibility of carrying with it both respect and authority. They correspond in some manner to what we would call keepers of the public conscience, inasmuch as they inform the King as often as they see fit, of any infraction of the law in any part of the entire kingdom. No one is spared from their scrutiny, even the highest magistrates, as they do not hesitate to speak, even though it concerns the King himself or his household. If they had the power of doing something more than talking, or rather of writing, and if they were not wholly dependent upon the King whom they admonish, their particular office would correspond to that of the Lacedemonian Ephors. And yet they do their duty so thoroughly that they are a source of wonder to outsiders and a good example for imitation. Neither King nor magistrates can escape their courage and frankness, and even when they arouse the royal wrath to such an extent that the king becomes severely angry with them they will never desist from their admonitions and criticism until some remedy has been applied to the public evil against which they are inveighing. In fact. when the grievance is particularly acute they are sure to put a sting into their complaints and to show no partiality where crown or courts are concerned. This same privilege of offering written criticism is also granted by law to any magistrate and even to a private citizen, but for the most part it is exercised only by those to whose particular office it pertains. Numerous copies are made of such written documents submitted to the crown and of the answers made to them In this way, what goes on in the royal headquarters is quickly communicated to every corner of the country. These documents are also compiled in book form, and whatever of their content is deemed worthy of handing down to posterity is transcribed into the annals of the king's regime.

***

Besides the regular magistrates there are in the royal palace various other organizations, instituted for particular purposes. The most exalted of these is what is known as the Han-lin-yuen, made up of selected doctors of philosophy and chosen by examination. Members of this cabinet have nothing to do with public administration but outrank all public officials in dignity of office. Ambition for a place in this select body means no end of labor and of sacrifice. These are the King's secretaries, who do both his writing and his composing. They edit and compile the royal annals and publish the laws and statutes of the land. The tutors of kings and princes are chosen from their number. They are entirely devoted to study and there are grades within the cabinet which are determined by the publications of its members. Hence they are honored with the highest dignity within the regal court. but not beyond it...

***

The Chinese can distinguish between their magistrates by the parasols they use as protection against the sun when they go out in public. Some of these are blue and others yellow. Sometimes for effect they will have two or three of these sunshades, but only one if their rank does not permit of more. They may also be recognized by their mode of transportation in public. The lower ranks ride on horseback, the higher are carried about on the shoulders of their servants in gestatorial chairs. The number of carriers also has significance of rank; some are only allowed four, others may have eight. There are other ways also of distinguishing the magistracy and the rank of dignity therein; by banners and pennants, chains and censer cups, and by the number of guards who give orders to make way for the passage of the dignitary. The escort itself is held in such high esteem by the public that no one would question their orders. Even in crowded city everyone gives way at the sound of their voices with a spontaneity that correspond to the rank of the approaching celebrity.

Before closing this chapter on Chinese public administration, it would seem to be quite worthwhile recording a few more things in which this people differ from Europeans. To begin with, it seems to be quite remarkable when we stop to consider it, that in a kingdom of almost limitless expanse and innumerable population and abounding in copious supplies of every description, though they have a well-equipped army and navy that could easily conquer the neighboring nations, neither the King nor his people ever think of waging a war of aggression They are quite content with what they have and are not ambitious of conquest. In this respect they are much different from the people of Europe, who are frequently discontent with their own governments and covetous of what others enjoy. While the nations of the West seem to be entirely consumed with the idea of supreme domination, they cannot even preserve what their ancestors have bequeathed them, as the Chinese have done through a period of some thousand of years....

***

Another remarkable fact and quite worthy of note as marking a difference from the West, is that the entire kingdom is administered by the Order of the Learned, commonly known as The Philosophers. The responsibility for the orderly management of the entire realm is wholly and completely committed to their charge and care. The army, both officers and soldiers, hold them in high respect and show them the promptest obedience and deference, and not infrequently the military are disciplined by them as a schoolboy might be punished by his master. Policies of war are formulated and military; questions are decided by the Philosophers only, and their advice and counsel has more weight with the King than that of the military leaders. In fact very few of these and only on rare occasions, are admitted to war consultations. Hence it follows that those who aspire to be cultured frown upon war and would prefer the lowest rank in the philosophical order to the highest in the military, realizing that the Philosophers far excel military leaders in the good will and the respect of the people and in opportunities of acquiring wealth.

Wiki Christainity from Ming to Qing

Christainity in China,from Ming to Qing

Western missionaries paid visits to China started as early as 16 century.During Ming Dynasty , scholars such as Matteo Ricci, [1]Johann Adam Schall von Bell [2] and Ferdinand Verbiest， plus many others not as well known missionaries.Beside bringing christianity into China,they were bringing western knowledge as well,such as mathematic,geography, astronomy, metallurgy, and modern weapons making. All the prominent missionaries were given high positions in the Ming royal court, and were highly respected by Ming emperors and the bureaucrat, especially Matteo Ricci [3], who was being granted a burial place in the Royal Capital by the Ming Emperor[4] himself. Scientific books[5] brought into China by the missionaries were being translated into Chinese language. Vice versa, many books on Confucius teaching were being translated and introduced into the West.

However, when the Manchu conquerers took over the Forbidden City, they not only suspended all the cultural exchanges between East and west, they went much further by shutting down all the sea ports, burning every seagoing ships, and turning the whole coastal line into no man's zone. When Manchu was turning back the clock, England and Europe were going through Industrial Revolution and renaissance. In early 1700s, Great Britain[6] became a world power, an empire on which the sun never set.

When European powers were acquiring enormous riches through trading(including slaves trading)and conquests of various small countries, Manchu rulers had shut its door on the West for the next 200 plus years.


In 1743,British Commodore George Anson [7] was contemptuous of China's military power,and wrote: "in artifice, falsehood and an attachment to all kinds of lucre, many of the Chinese are difficult to be paralleled by any other people." which pretty much help shaped England's understanding of 16 century China.

In 1793,Lord Macartney,[8]had made another observation on the weaknesses and the falling apart of the Manchu Dynasty:"tyranny of a handful of Tartars over more than 300 million of Chinese".

- After Napoleon was defeated,European powers then began the assault on Manchu Dynasty,whose military machine[9] was still consisted of bow and arrow,knife and spear,when Europeans were already using machine guns and high explosive shells on battle fields. On 1840-1843,with the first Opium War , Manchu suffered one of the most humiliating defeat in the hands of the Western powers; and it was the beginning of many more defeats to come.


By the middle to late 1800's, the "foreign devil" opponents were quite different. The English and French regulars and marines were much better discplined than the Russian cossacks of the 1600's. Muskets and Rifles of much higher rate of fire also were available. More importantly, the initial combat were done along the coast. The 74-gun third-rate line-of-battle ships like HMS Wellesley [10] (built in India) simply laid waste to Chinese coastal guns and troops near the shore. The return fire from Chinese coastal artilleries did not have the muzzle velocity to penetrate the couple feet of oak that made up the sides of the British/Indian ships. During the 1st Opium War, British troops did not venture much beyond the protection of their naval guns; the naval guns probably claimed the bulk of Chinese combat casulties. By the time of the 2nd Opium War, rifles with percussion cap cartriges became available, with even higher firing rate than flint-locks. So the Manchu/Mongol bannermen really did not have much of a chance even in-land. The Qing cavalry simply got shot to pieces before their crossbows were even in range.

By the time of the Boxer Rebellion, when the Qing troops fought both the rebels and the foreigners from time to time, the Allied army had gattling guns in addition to repeating rifles (like Winchester)[11] and artillery that fired shells (not just cannon balls). The fighting became even more lopsided. -

* Some eastern scholar suggest Opium[12] played a major part in the down fall af Manchu Dynasty. Ellen N. La Motte wrote:Opium was now contraband, but the fact had no effect on the quantity introduced into the country, which rose to 5,000 chests in 1820; 16,000 chests in 1830; 20,000 chests in 1838, and 70,000 chests in 1858." Such a large quantity of importation of opium would have require equally large amount of silver ingots in exchange.

Nearly 100% of the opium came from British East India Company in India,and the profit from the opium trade end up in the Bank of England.


10 Wednesday 09

[edit] References

1. ^ "Matteo Ricci""catholic encyclopedia on Matteo Ricci's life"
2. ^ "Johann Adam Schall von Bell""Another great missionary that went to china to spread the words of gosbel"
3. ^ "Chinese version of the first six books of Euclid's Elements""From about 1600 until the suppression in 1773, Jesuits were practically the sole source of Chinese knowledge about Western astronomy, geometry and trigonometry"
4. ^ "Geoff Wade""Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu, Geoff Wade's translation of & commentary on texts from the Veritable Records of the history of Ming Dynasty"
5. ^ "Euclid's Elements""Euclid's Elements have been studied for centuries - in fact until the 20 th century it was the most common reprinted book after the Bible."
6. ^ "Great Britain"
7. ^ "Harry G. Gelber""a Professor of History and Political Science and Visiting Research Fellow, Asian Research Centre, London School of Economics and Political Economy."
8. ^ [ http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1792macartney.html "Modern History Sourcebook"]"Lord Macartney told the Chinese legate that he would not perform the kowtow unless a high officer of state would kowtow before a picture of the King of England."
9. ^ [aer2.sbc.edu.hk/~wcc/China/DECLINE_1.DOC "Sweet Briar college history document"] "DECLINE OF THE QING DYNASTY,INFERIOR WEAPONS"
10. ^ "WOODEN WALLS""When she returned from this service, some 27 cannon balls were found embedded in her sides"
11. ^ "Winchester Repeating Rifle"
12. ^ "ELLEN N. LA MOTTE" "HISTORY OF THE OPIUM TRADE IN CHINA"

Wiki boxer rebellion long term short term cause.

*Western missionaries paid visits to China started as early as 16 century.During [[Ming Dynasty]] 明朝 ,great [[scholars]] such as [[Matteo Ricci]], (1552 – 1610) 利瑪竇,[[Johann Adam Schall von Bell]] (1591年－1666年）， 湯若望 ,and [[Ferdinand Verbiest]]，(1623－1688) 南懷仁 ,plus many others not as well known missionaries.Beside spreading the words of [[Christ]],they were spreading western knowledge as well,such as mathematic,geography,astronomy,metallurgy,and modern weapons making.All the prominent missionaries were given extreme high positions in the [[Ming]] royal court,and were highly respected by Ming emperors and the bureaucrat,especially Matteo [[Ricci]],who was being granted a burial place in the Royal Capital by none other than the [[Ming Emperor]] himself.

-
In less then 250 years,the high social status enjoyed by the western missionaries had turned from heaven to hell.The [[Manchu]] rulers,unlike the [[Ming]] emperors who were the true followers of [[Confucius]] Teaching,had stopped the interaction and exchange between two great cultures,that of the East and the West.

-
The Manchu rulers,whose ancestors were primitive tribal nomads and pastoral farmers and slaves chieftains,decided to permanently shutting the door on western culture and religion,by systematically killing foreign missionaries and their native converts,burn down the churches and Bibles,in the end causing the downfall and collapse of their own empire,which lasted only 260 years.

-
-
==Short Term Causes==

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*'''Harry G. Gelber''' ,is the author[http://www.johnderbyshire.com/Reviews/China/gelber.html Harry G. Gelberis] "a Professor of History and Political Science and Visiting Research Fellow, Asian Research Centre, London School of Economics and Political Economy."

-
of The Dragon and the Foreign Devils: China and the World, 1100 B.C. to the Present

-
-
In 1743,[[British]] Commodore George Anson was contemptuous of China's military power,and wrote: "in artifice, falsehood and an attachment to all kinds of lucre, many of the Chinese are difficult to be paralleled by any other people." which pretty much help shaped England's understanding of 16 century China,when [[Britain]] was on its way to becoming the [[Empire]] that the Sun never set.

-
In 1793,Lord Macartney,had made another observation on the weaknesses and the falling apart of the primitive Manchu Dynasty:"tyranny of a handful of Tartars over more than 300 million of Chinese (read Han)".

-
After Napoleon was defeated,European powers then began the assault on this old and tired Manchu Dynasty,whose military machine was still consisted of bow and arrow,knife and spear,when Europeans were already using machine guns and high power cannons on battle fields.On 1840-1843,with the first Opium War , Manchu suffered one of the most humiliating defeat in the hands of the Western powers; and it was the beginning of many more defeats to come.

-

袁偉時教授文章英文版

Modernization and History Textbooks. By Yuan Weishi (Zhongshan University professor)

[in translation; see Chinese original]

In the 21st century, the Chinese people are facing the inexorable globalization trend. At the same time, the modernization of China has reached a key moment. In this age, the system will be the most important factor that determines the success of the development of the nation and its people, and the states of mind of the citizens are also important for their personal development as well that of the nation and society as a whole.

In the late 1970's, after going through the three disasters known as the Anti-Rightist Campaign, the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, people have found out bitterly that the root of these disaster includes: "We grew up drinking the wolf's milk." More than twenty years have elapsed. I happened to have glanced through the middle-school history textbooks recently, and I was stunned to find: our youth are continuing to drink the wolf's milk!

The Chinese people have familiar sayings such as "Use history as example" and "If you remember the past, you will have a guide for the future." The modern history of China contains so much in humiliations, setbacks and war experiences one after another, and it should be an educational experience! We have the duty to tell the true history to our youth so that they will never forget. This is the required path to turn them into modern citizens. If these innocent children swallow fake pills, then they will live with prejudices for their own lives and go down the wrong path.

This is the moment when we have to examine the problem about our history textbooks. We start with the discussion of a few concrete historical incidents.

Was the burning of the Yuanming Garden unavoidable?

The burning of the Yuanming Garden was an unforgivable crime committed by the British and French invasion forces. How did things reach this point? More than 140 years have passed, and we should calmly consider the rights and wrongs of both sides to draw lessons, so that the people of different nations can live together in peace. This incident was one of the horrific outcomes of the Second Opium War. The Third Volume of Chinese History edited by the People's Educational Publishers is commonly used as the textbook in the first year of middle school in the nine-year free education system. This is how this war was narrated.

1. The causes of the war.

This textbook said: "In March 1856, the French Catholic priest Auguste Chapdelaine sneaked into the Xilin district of Guangxi to cause mischief and was put to death by the local officials. This was the so-called 'Chapdelaine incident.' Later on, France used that as an excuse to initiate a war of aggression along with England. In October of the same year, the Guangzhou navy arrested the pirates and sailors on the Chinese commercial ship The Arrow. The English consul interfered by claiming that the Arrow was an English ship and demanding that China release all the arrestees while apologizing and compensating the English. The governor of Guangdong/Guangxi Ye Mingchen did not want to magnify the matter, so he released the arrested sailors but he refused to apologize. This was the so-called 'Arrow incident.' In October 1856, the English initiated the war by bombarding Guangzhou. Thus began the Second Opium War."

The description of the Arrow incident was basically consistent with the historical facts. As for the killing of the French Catholic priest August Chapdelaine, this is still a confusing mess. Chapdelaine was executed on February 29, 1856 by the Guangxi Xilin district substitute mayor Zhang Fengming. When the French consul inquired, Zhang Fengming insisted that no such thing had happened. This caused the Guangxi inspector general and the Guangdong/Guangxi governor to believe it to be true up until early 1858, and that was how they replied to the French consul as well as the central government.

According to the Treaty of Huangpo established between China and France in October 1844, French people were allowed to be active only within the "designated territories" in the five ports agreed upon by both parties. "Any French citizen found to violate this rule, or cross the boundaries, or enter the interior, will be arrested by Chinese officials and sent to the nearest French consulate; the Chinese officials must not assault, injure or mistreat any arrested French persons so as not to damage the amity between the two nations."

Chapdelaine began to preach in Guangxi in 1842. After the Treaty of Huangpo was signed, he refused to leave. This was a wrongful act under the Treaty. But it was wrong for the Xilin official to execute him, for this was against the Treaty obligation to send the arrested Frenchman to the consulate. Today, people have still not figured out what Chapdelaine did to deserve being put to death. According to the normal legalistic viewpoint of justice, the Chinese side was no doubt in the wrong. The textbook is therefore inaccurate in the characterization of this incident.

It should also be pointed out that the textbook failed to mention the two basic root causes of this war. First, the English government asked the Qing government to faithfully follow the requirements of the Treaty of Jiangning, in which an important clause was that the English officials and merchants be allowed to enter and leave Guangzhou city freely. Letting the foreigners enter the city seems to be a trivial matter today. At the time, there were similar disputes in the other four open ports as well, but those tussles were resolved without crises. In Guangzhou, it was a total mess that shook the entire government and set the first example of refusing access to the foreigners. This matter went on for more than ten years without resolution, until it had to be settled in the battlefield.

Secondly, according to the Treaty of Wangsha: "All trade and customs matters may be modified according to circumstances. The two nations should negotiate fairly in 12 years' time." The Treaty of Huangpo also said: "If there are articles that require modification ... they should wait until 12 years before negotiating with China again." Modifying commercial clauses should be a simple diplomatic matter, but the Qing government delayed again and again and increased the contradictions between the two sides.

As for the reason why the war was started, knowledgeable people at the time have thought about why. According to insider Shi Fucheng who said in sorrow: "The English originally wanted to enter the city to meet the officials in order to increase communication. But the people of Guangzhou provoked them again and again and Ye Mingchen made mistake after mistake and gave away the city ... since the English knew that China was hapless, they joined with the French, Russian and American gun boats to sail up north into Dagu to block Chinese marine commerce and forced a treaty. The people of Guangzhou had been irate at the previous negotiation and was therefore determined to bar the foreigners from entering and rejected every request over twenty years. The loss of Dagu and the Treaty of Tianjin were the results. Looking at it today, it was pointless." In the late Qing era, Zeng Guofan, Li Hongchang, Feng Guifen, Guo Songdao and others kept reminding each other "do not let the small things create huge trouble" and that included the lesson learned by the argument over letting the foreigners enter Guangzhou.

In another part of the People's Republic of China, the history textbooks for middle-school in Hong Kong are much better edited than those in the mainland. They summarized the cause of the war in four points: 1. The issue of foreigners entering the city; 2. the problem about extending the treaty; 3. The Arrow incident; 4. the Father Chapdelaine affair. This presentation matches the historical reality and does not damage national interests. It also helps the younger generation to calmly analyze the historical problem. It shows that the editors were qualified historians. The puzzle is: Why couldn't the mainland colleagues learn to do the same?

2. The course of the war.

In 1858, Dagu was seized. The English and French invaders were outside the gates of Tianjin. The English, French, Russians and Americans forced the Qing government to sign the Treaty of Tianjin. Although many rights were conceded, the problem was solved. The two sides agreed to exchange the letter of approval in Beijing next year in order to complete the legal procedure. Had both sides followed the agreement, the second invasion (culminating in the burning of the Yuanming Garden) by the English and French armies could have been avoided.

But nobody expected the purely procedural final step would lead to unanticipated developments that brought even greater disasters! The textbook said: "In 1959, the English and French envoys led their respective fleets north to Daguhou in order to exchange documents in Beijing. The Qing government insisted that the treaty envoys land at Beitong and proceed to Bejing through Tianjin, and they also requested the armed personnel on the warships not to disembark. The English and French envoys counted on their military power and insisted that they will land at Daguhou up the White River to get to Beijing. They took their fleet into Daguhou rudely. The Chinese batteries at Daguhou opened fire against the invaders. Four enemy ships were sunk and six were damaged. The remaining three ships hoisted white flags and fled. The people of Dagu brought food to the defenders during the battle and exhibited a high degree of patriotism." According to the pen of the editor, this was a patriotic and heroic paean in which the principal actors were the soldiers and the common people. But there are plenty of doubts upon further thought.

Based upon the results, this battle was an obvious mistake. The next year, the English and French forces invaded again and occupied Beijing, burning the Yuanming Garden during the process. The new Treaty of Peking not only stipulated that the original Treaty of Tianjin was valid, but there were additional penalties. The compensation to England and France went respectively from the original 4 and 2 million taels to 8 million taels each; the Kowloon district was conceded; French missionaries were permitted to preach freely in China and "French missionaries can rent or buy land in all the provinces and build at will." This would lay the groundwork for the continuous disputes in latter years. Would it be better for China if the battle had not taken place?

It is logical for people to follow up with the question: is it all that important which route the foreign envoys took to reach Beijing, to the point of going to battle? Was there any serious negotiations over this difference in opinion? Did the Chinese soldiers open fire on their own or upon orders? If the former is the case, that this was a serious mistake that violated military discipline, and so it cannot be a patriotic and heroic act. If the latter is the case, then what kind of order was issued?

In reviewing the historical data, this was no act of patriotism and heroism. It was a major crime committed by the ignorant Emperor Xianfeng and Lord Sengelinqin. The difference in opinion was not about the choice of which route to enter Beijing as the textbook says. Rather, they wanted the English and French envoys to take a long detour to enter Tianjin. At the time, Lord Sengelinqin's aid Guo Songdao wrote in his diary: On April 10, 1859, "Prince Yi arrived at camp ... he said that he carried special orders from the Emperor: if the foreigners come and refuse to follow the rules, you should attack them by surprise. You say that these were just armed civilians, not soldiers. You are to act properly otherwise, and delay all negotiations. Prince Yi was muddleheaded, and Lord Sen had to review it with him again and again. So the foreigners will be made to enter at Beitong and then detour around to Tianjin ... the debate went on again and again before the decision was made. The details are attached."

After the Treaty of Peking was established, Guo gave more details about the situation at the time: "The foreign disaster began with Lord Sen's attempt to attack by deception. Last year, there were more than a dozen orders from the Emperor to get them to stay outside the river to await instructions. When the foreign ships entered the inner river instead, Lord Sen did not send any messenger with instruction. Instead, the soldiers were told to remove their uniforms and acted as armed civilians to attack." Zeng Guofan told his aides: "In the ninth year of Xianfeng, the foreigners came to exchange the treaty documents. Lord Sengelinqin set up a trap and attacked them, and the nation celebrated. In the tenth year, the foreigners returned ... the capital fell and the nation mourned. I say that Lord Sen caused this defeat and he ought to kill himself in apology to the people." What they said was identical to the report by the English envoy Bruce. The English and French navy arrived on June 16 and received a notice on the morning of June 25 from governor Shi Fu. But by that time, the military action had already started. These historical material can be summarized in the following points.

1. Emperor Xianfeng decided that under certain circumstances, the soldiers can pretend to be armed civilians to launch a "surreptitious" attack on the foreign devils. At the same time, he issued more than a dozen orders that the foreigners must receive notice beforehand.

2. Lord Sengelinqin faithfully carried out the plan to launch a 'surreptitious' attack, but he gave no notice beforehand. He also resolutely rejected the advice of his aides. He was also the person who came up with the plan to ask the foreigners to land at Beitong and make the detour to Tianjin.

3. Faced with this disaster that brought national shame, the more astute officials such as Zeng Guofan, Guo Songdao, Wu Rulun (as well Li Hongchang, Feng Guifen) made severe criticisms and parables about what happened.

But the most shocking is this: In the 90's of the twentieth century, our textbooks are still singing the tune of Emperor Xianfeng and Lord Sengelinqin, with the only difference in replacing the 'armed civilians' by soldiers!

At this point, we can answer the question about whether the burning of Yuanming Garden can be avoided. Faced with the pressure from the powerful enemies, the weaker Qing empire rationally should follow the existing treaties carefully in order to avoid frontal conflicts. They needed to buy time to reform and develop themselves. But the government and gentry at that time were swayed by extreme emotions, and chose to break the treaties on minor points and thereby led to a great disaster. If the Qing government's decision-making class and the local governments were not so ignorant and stubborn, this disaster could have been averted. But the knowledge of the government officials and the dictatorial decision-making method were built up over a long history and could not be changed overnight. The fact that this was an invasion meant that the foreigners could not be a civilized force. Thus, this disaster was also unavoidable.

Was this a patriotic act or an uncivilized act?

Let us look at how the textbook's authors evaluate the Boxer rebels.

The textbook correctly disclosed that "after the United Armies of the Eight Nations entered Bejing, arson, murders and looting was committed"; "when the United Armies of the Eight Nations invaded Tianjin ... the Russians committed the shocking massacre at Hailanpao. The Russian army also forcibly took over China's Jiangdong Liushisitun and butchered the local residents." Apart from the above, everything else was error-filled.

1. The textbook did not mention anything about how the Boxers were hostile to modern civilization or they blindly rejected foreigners and all foreign civilizations through extremely ignorant ways.

The Boxers cut down telegraph lines, they destroyed schools, they demolished railroad tracks, they burned foreign merchandise, they murdered foreigners and all Chinese who had any connection of foreign culture ... any person or thing that had some foreign flavor had to be totally annihilated. Even if the Boxers made great contributions towards "supporting the Qing government and destroying the foreigners," you should not be avoiding those anti-civilization and anti-humanity mistakes. Besides, these criminal actions brought unspeakable suffering to the nation and its people! These are all facts that everybody knows, and it is a national shame that the Chinese people cannot forget. Yet our children's compulsory textbooks will not speak about it.

The textbooks also spoke about the destruction of the railroad tracks. But what did it say? "In June 1900 ... more than 2,000 invaders from the Eight Nations led by British navy commander Moore went from Dagu through Tianjin towards Beijing. The Boxers destroyed the railroad track from Tianjin to Beijing and then attacked the invading force. The invading force was surrounded near Langfang by the Boxers and suffered many casualties before retreating back to Tianjin." On this basis, the destruction of the railroad track was just an unavoidable act required to repel the invaders. But what actually happened?

On May 28, 1900, the local governor Yu Lu telegraphed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs: "On the evening of May 27, we learned that the Boxer bandits have destroyed the railroad tracks from Zhuozhou to Liulihe. This morning, all railroad stations, bridges and buildings belonging to the railroad department along the 100 mile stretch from Liulihe to Changxindian have been attacked and set on fire by the Boxer bandits." At the same time, other emergency reports flooded in: "The telegraph is now down ... the line to Changxindian is down; the line from Liulihe to Zhuozhou is also cut off by the bandits and all telegraph messages are stopped." They destroyed these equipment solely because these things came from the outside, and not because there were unavoidable actions that had to taken to stop the invaders. At the same time, these activities occurred everywhere and they were not infrequent actions that took place in isolated areas That is to say, this was intentional destruction of property, and not what some historians credited as heroic measures to resist the invaders. From the timing, Moore's army was forced to retreat back to Tianjin between June 10 and June 26. Prior to this, the urgent reports from everywhere about the destruction of the railroad and telegraph lines, the burning of the train stations and the looting of property had already been coming in. The Boxers burned, killed, looted and deliberately destroyed modern civilization first, and then the United Armies of the Eight Nations came. This chronology is the historical truth and cannot be revised.

2. The textbooks did not condemn the Qing dynasty and the Boxers for killing the innocent and their barbaric and cruel crimes in burning, killing and looting.

The most representative case is what the Shanxi official Yu Xian did. On June 27, he burned down the foreign hospital in Taiyuan. He lured the foreigners in the province to stay together in one place. At the time, there were 211 women, some of whom were old but most of them between 5 to 30 years old, in the church ... on June 13, he personally led the troops to the place where the foreigners were gathered. The foreigners attempted to resist arrest, but the troops overpowered them and arrested 44 foreigners as well as 17 other Chinese converts. All were brought to the marketplace and executed"; "in Shouyang county, Qin Xingui arrested seven foreign troublemakers and brought them there for execution. That night, the Northern Gate church was set on fire by the Boxers. There are no signs of any foreign churches left in the provincial capital city." At the time, the newspapers even reported: "The westerner at Yujin heard about the troubles in the capital, and they asked official Yu Xian for protection. But he told them to gather together and then he butchered them; he was personally responsible for killing several people with his own hands."

The actions of Yu Xian was not isolated. All these obstinate regressives were the inheritors of the most retrogressive and barbaric elements of traditional culture. There were numerous examples in which these obstinate bureaucrats caused trouble. For example, the Hebei province official Dai Lan was ordered to "direct" the Boxers with Dai Xun and Gang Yi, and his cruelty was no less than Yu Xian's: "When the trouble began in the capital, Dai Lan let the Boxer bandits enter the large houses and conduct searches. If they find carpets and other stuff, the occupants were regarded as believers and executed. Not even royal relatives were spared."

Let us look at what the Boxers did. Previously, it has been pointed out that we cannot regard all those people who participated in the Boxer organization should be regarded as bandits because some of them were just blind followers. But there are quite a few bandits and hooligans there. Overall during the Boxer incident between June 24 and July 24 of 2000, 231 foreigners were killed, of which 53 were children. Most of them died at the hands of the Boxers. As for the Chinese believers who were killed, there is no known number. Most of them were killed by the Boxers, and others by the government soldiers. In Shanxi province alone, more than 5,700 Catholic followers were killed. In Liaoning province, "more than one thousand believers." "In Heibei province, killings and arson occurred in every single county. In one county alone, between 1,000 to 2,000 were killed." Even in Zhejiang province, "looting and burning of the homes of believers occurred more than 1,000 times."

"The maximum damage" occurred in Beijing, where there were many records left behind by the victims. On June 18, 1900, "the burning and destruction began in midday and the fire was still going at night ... if you don't like someone, you accuse them of being believers and you murder their entire family. The number of dead was more than 100,000. Most people died from knifes and spears, and their bodies were cut up. Even babies not more than a month old were slaughtered. There was no feeling of humanity left." "The French catholic church was located inside Xian Gate. Gang Yi supervised the soldiers to attack the church, but they could not breach the defense. The Boxers did not dare advance so they ended up shouting a lot. Then they turned around and headed towards Yongding Gate. There were about 70 rural villagers going to the market. These people were seized and accused of being from the White Lotus Sect because they carried some children toys and clothes. Under interrogation, they had nothing to confess to. So they were all executed in the marketplace. One woman was executed while still holding her child in her arms ... Yu Ding tried to appeal on their behalf by saying: 'There has to be evidence for subversion. Old men and weak women are not subversives; toys are not weapons for subversion ...' But it was too late as the sentence had been carried out already."

On June 16, "at 9am, the Boxers set fire to the Deji Pharmacy at the Dasanlan district. The fire moved on to the food stores, the lamp street, the Guanyin temple, the jewel market ... and more then 4,000 shops were burned down. The fire did not stop until daylight. The bandits forbade the fire brigade to fight the fire with water." Thus, the most prosperous and busy section of Beijing was destroyed in one day. Overall, "at its peak, there were more than four million living in Beijing. When the Boxer chaos came, the bandits came and looted the city with no one spared. The market was deserted, and even wild animals can be seen roaming in broad daylight. The formerly busy streets were like graveyards." This was one of the results of the so-called Boxer "revolution."

At first, the contradictions between the people versus the preachers and the converts drew some sympathy. But what they did later far exceeded anything to do with conflicts with outside religions. Afterwards all the way through the founding of the republic, the consensus opinion of the officials and citizens was that this organization should be properly regarded and defined as the Boxer bandits.

3. The most incomprehensible thing is that there is no mention of the fact that this calamity was brought about by the autocracy of the Empress Dowager.

When the Boxers first emerged, Yuan Shikai presented a report to the Emperor: "They deceive the people by claiming to be able to dodge and repel bullets and cannonballs. But whenever they fought against the militia, the Christians and the soldiers, many of them die by gunfire and they dissolve away quickly ... they attempt to sway people by claiming to want to destroy the foreigners. Yet between last Spring and Summer, they robbed the homes of more than 1,100 believers as well as more than 200 ordinary citizens in Caozhou and Jining. Between Autumn and Winter in Dongyang and Jinan, they robbed the homes of more then 600 believers and more than 100 ordinary citizens. There were also many cases of kidnapping for ransom. These people are no different from bandits. Believers suffered at their hands, but so do many ordinary citizens." Certain other more senior officials than Yuan Shikai (such as the Lord of the Northern Sea and the Hebei province governor Yu Lu) also offered similar opinions. But the Empress Dowager refused to listen. So the more perceptive officials can only maintain their silence, while other officials of bad character ran with the trend and looked for favors (such as Yu Lu).

So a weak country which could not even handle a "tiny little country" such as Japan six years ago wanted to simultaneously declare war against eleven nations including Japan! Sixty years after the "International Law" reached China, they wanted to send troops to attack the foreign consulates in China!

To decide between war and peace, from June 16, 1900, the Empress Dowager held a four-day conference with the senior government officials. At the conference, many officials pleaded with the Empress Dowager not to listen to the evil cultists, not to assault the consulates and not to declare war first. The Foreign Ministry officials Yuan Changhu and Xu Jingdeng wrote in a joint petition: "Since ancient history, when two nations go to war, they do not kill innocent travelers. In international law, the consul is a major official of the country. To hold the consul in contempt is to hold the country in contempt. If the orders are sent for the bandits to attack the consulates and kill their officials, the countries will regard this as a huge humiliation and they will united together to seek revenge. For one country to fight against all the other countries is not a matter of winning or losing; it is about keeping or losing the entire country as a result." But the Empress Dowager not only did not accept these obvious commonsense wisdom, but she threw a fit and had those two officials executed!

At the same time, most of the crimes such as Yu Xin killing the foreigners occurred after the order to declare war on the other nations on June 21 and the order to the local governors to kill the foreigners on June 24. Therefore, the head criminal is the Empress Dowager, and people like Yu Xin and Dai Yi were just brutal executioners.

4. The textbook is not serious about handling certain historical materials.

"The Boxers arose from Shandong and by March, the earth was red everywhere. All the children took up knives to become heroes who defend the nation." The textbook highlighted this folksong and said that this was a "Boxer folksong." But this author has never been able to find anything that supports this after reading all the existing Boxer flyers and documents. Usually, the so-called oral tales from such investigations are created by others later on, and are not trustworthy.

The textbook also said: "In Beijing's Dongdan Xibiao Hutong, there is a temple of Yu Qian. In order to learn from Yu Qian's patriotic spirit, the Boxer entered the city in April 2000 and then set up their altar there." All academic viewpoints should reject unfounded assertions. Dai Yi, Dai Lan and other Manchurian lords who brought calamity to the country and its people also had Boxer altars set up inside their homes. So what were the Boxers trying to learn from them?

In our country, apart from the aforementioned textbook published by the People's Educational Publisher, there is another set of textbooks used in the coastal regions. This is known as the coastal edition, and it contains even more factual errors in places and the notion of right versus wrong is even more muddled.

For example, it describing the Boxer incident, it added these sentences: "After mid-June, the Boxer masses began to surround the Xishiku church and the foreign consulate areas occupied by the foreign invaders. The Qing government secretly delivered food, vegetables, wine and fruits to the besieged invaders." Every single sentence is wrong!

First, we ask: Is the Xishiku church "a site occupied by the invaders"? Prior to the Boxer incident, this was just an ordinary French Catholic church. There was nothing to prove that it is "a site occupied by the invaders." During the Boxer uprising, from June 13, 1900, most of the churches and residences in Beijing were destroyed in a few days, together with several thousand civilian homes and shops. The surviving Xishiku church and the Dongjiao consulate area provided shelter for a great many foreign survivors and Chinese believers. The survivors inside this church could not count on the Qing government to maintain normal social order and they were fighting back to avoid being massacred. There is no way to find fault either by reason or law. To say that this church is "a site occupied by the invaders" is irresponsible speech.

Next, the attack on the Dongjiao area was willed by the Empress Dowager. The main assault force was Dong Fuxiang's army and Rong Lu's army. They committed the crime and the Boxers were just helping them. To gloss over this fact and to make out as if the Boxers was a spontaneous patriotic action not only distorts the historical truth but it also conceals the fact that the Qing government had trampled all over international law. Furthermore, the attack against the Xishiku church and the consulate area revealed the ignorance and brutality of the autocracy and its autocrat. If this cannot even be confronted in the late 90's of the twentieth century, then this represents ignorance of international law while praising a national shame and forgetting the duty to oppose the feudal autocracy!

Now look at the second sentence. The Qing government did sent daily supplies to the besieged foreign consulates. This was done publicly and so that "secretly" was not based on historical data. At the time, some more alert officials in the Qing government repeatedly requested protection of foreign diplomats and citizens in accordance with international law. The various governors of the southeastern provinces actually publicly stated that they will not follow the "false order" after the June 21 declaration of war. In the face of these pressures, the Empress Dowagers backed off and besides she also wanted some space left for maneuver. No matter what, the Qing government still had some people inside who had not completely lost their rationality and conscience. But to demean their actions with respect to that of the Boxers is clearly inappropriate.

Again, the Hong Kong textbook presents a more complete picture of the Boxer incident and the United Armies of the Eight Nations. They denounced the Boxers for "large-scale xenophobia, murdering preachers and believers including even those who own foreign books or wear eyeglasses, destroying everything, burning churches, cutting down telegraph lines, destroying railroad tracks." "A secretary in the Japanese embassy and the German consul were killed." But they also pointed out that "the discipline of the United Armies was very poor and they burned, looted and killed at will. Among them, the Russians, the Germans and the Indian soldiers of the English contingent were particularly brutal." They analyzed in detail the background which allowed the Boxers to rise: 1. Nationalism. 2. Poverty. 3. Invasion of the foreign powers. 4. Frequent occurrence of cases concerning religion. They also covered the contents of the Treaty of Xinchou and its deep effect on China then and later. Any unprejudiced person will agree that this textbook contained the true history.

The reason why such phenomena arise is intimately connected to the humiliation and harm that China has endured for so long. Faced with this reality, there can be two states of mind.

The invasion of the west completely changed the historical path of China. What happened afterwards was the breakdown of a venerable empire and the people were reduced to struggling between life and death. Naturally, the people blamed their state of being on the "foreign devils"; and they have also blamed the corruption and ignorance of the rulers. The unceasing point of debate for which consensus is difficult to achieve is: is the principal source of this situation internal or external?

Actually, there is a question from a completely different angle: why did this situation not change for so long? If someone says the imperialists are too brutal, then this is saying nothing. After long-term, complicated and repeated conflicts, it is possible to set up a 'just' order in the international system that will meet the long-term interests of most people and most nations. Before this condition appears, there won't a savior parachuting out of the sky to defend your national interests on your behalf. The problem can only be solved by facing this reality and figuring out how to get out of the situation.

The overseas experience proved this: when underdeveloped countries and areas (colonies and semi-colonies) change their development status, the only path to change is to follow the western powers and undertake the total modernization of social life. The key to success is national reform. This is a total transformation of the social system. For those countries that have their own culture and are historically resistant against outside cultures, this is a very difficult process. For China, from the Opium War to the new politics at the beginning of the 20th century, about 60 years was spent on deciding whether the nation wants to reform! As for the reform process, it is an even more complicated issue to decide between using revolutionary methods or gradual reforms. But one thing is for certain: it is necessary to find a peaceful international environment to win enough time for national reform and construction. If this is more or less right, then we have to look back at the Boxer incident and see how it was a reactionary affair that ran in the completely opposite direction of social progress. Furthermore, butchering foreigners is anti-humanitarian and anti-civilization, as are the violent acts that are extremely stupid and dangerous to the interests of China.

There was a popular judgment over many years that has been used to defend the Boxers: the Boxers avoided the partitioning of China. The historian Li Shiyue who passed away in 1989 refuted that argument in detail. The 450 million tael in compensation (which is equivalent to the total national income for six years) was like a huge bloodsucking syringe plunged into the chest of the Chinese people. It gave Tsarist Russia the excuse to carry out the Heilanpao and Jiangdong Liushisitun massacres in which more than 7,000 Chinese were killed and all of the land of Jiangdong lost and the Russians entering northeastern China. The number of war casualties in the Huabei region was inestimable. Afterwards, the partitioning conspiracies did not end: the English army invaded Tibet and occupied Lhasa; the Germans sent their gunboats into the Dongting lake and wanted to take a lease of the shores of Dongting and Panyang lakes; the English wanted to lease the Zhoushan archipelago as 'compensation.'

Some people like to quote the saying of the German Waldersee who was the commander of the United Armies of the Eight Nations: "No matter it is Europe, America, Japan or any country, they don't have the brains or military power to rule over one-quarter of the population of the world. So it is a bad move to partition China." This proved that the Boxers stopped the partitioning of China. Mr. Li Shiyue spoke well: "Waldersee's personal feelings do not represent the sentiments of Germany. The Germany Kaiser had always assumed that partitioning was the foundation of his China policy, and the aforementioned demand to 'lease' the shores of Dongting and Panyang lakes are the proof. The partitioning of China did not occur only because there were contradictions among the imperialists."

If the vista is opened up, then the problem becomes clearer. People have already pointed out: the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, the Reform Movement of 1898 and the Boxer incident is an uninterrupted flow of history. To be more precise, the Sino-Japanese War exposed the corrupt nature of the Qing empire and many intellectuals woke up from their dreams of many decades. They realized that it was a fundamental error for the self-renewal movement not to broach the basic issue of "freedom versus non-freedom." This was the first self-discovery step by the government and the reform movement advanced as a result. The key for the rise and decline of China now depended on whether it chooses to reform thoroughly in the manner of the West or refuse to reform and stick to the tradition. This is the key to understanding this piece of history. Unfortunately, the Reform Movement after the devastating defeat of the Sino-Japanese War failed. This reform movement had wanted to follow the West but it suffered a setback. In the Boxer incident, the counter-revolutionary current reached it peak for the traditionalists. In other words, the Boxer incident reflected the continued decline of China as an enslaved subject country from the outside and the pervasive ruin of its people from the inside.

In 2000-2001, there was an international incident that drew the attention of the Chinese people. That was the problem of the Japanese school textbooks. A textbook edited by rightwing elements attempted to cover up the historical truth and deny that Japan committed crimes during the invasions. This aroused the Chinese and Korean nations and peoples to protest vigorously. This was a struggle on behalf of justice and it was the fourth time in the past twenty years. In 1982, 1986 and 1996, there were newly revised textbooks that distort history and aroused public anger inside and outside Japan. This chronic ill in Japanese thought has given many people a deep impression: the Japanese lack the will to be contrite. People asked further: Why is there the phenomenon of refusing the accept any guilt? Is this a flaw of the Japanese people?

When you look at the aforementioned problems in the Chinese textbooks, a logical conclusion is that our modern history have similar kinds of problems. Of course, it is different because Japan was the invader whereas China was being invaded. But the two have something in common: the mainstream culture in society lacks deep reflection on its contemporary history.

Since the beginning of the 20th century, Chinese intellectuals have advocated remaking the national character time and again. These vanguards meant well, but they did not ask: What are the main factors that determine national character? It can be said that the national character is the characteristics of the thoughts and behaviors of the citizens. All people evolve from cannibals. As a group, the deciding factor on the degree of civilization and barbarity is the strength of how the cultural tradition and system can purify themselves.

The humiliation from the insults and injuries gave the Chinese people a new momentum in thinking. This is shown over the long-term in the form of a specious concept: since the "foreign devils" are the invaders, the Chinese are justified and praised in whatever they do. This is required by patriotism.

The current history textbooks are using this concept to guide thinking. It is obvious that we must love our country. But there are two ways to love our country. One way is to inflame nationalistic passions. Traditional Chinese culture had deeply ingrained ideas such as "Chinese and foreigners are different" and "if you not my kind, then your loyalties must be opposite to mine." Our thinking is still poisoned by them today. The latest edition is this: if there is a conflict between China and others, then China must be right; patriotism means opposing the other powers and the foreigners. In the selection and presentation of historical materials, we will only use those that favor China whether they are true or false. The other choice is this: we analyze everything rationally; if it is right, it is right and if it is wrong, it is wrong; calm, objective and wholly regard and handle all conflicts with the outside.

The basic spirit of modernization is rationality. If we accept this basic viewpoint, then we should lead the Chinese people down this path and let rationality and tolerance become the national character of the Chinese people. Then the peoples of the world and their cultures can co-exist in harmony. In an era of rapid globalization, conflict of interest among corporations and nations are unavoidable. Rational understanding and resolving conflicts is the best choice for any nation or corporation. If anything related to the outside is always about "anti-imperialism" and "anti-hegemony," then the matter is bound to be bungled.

For example, law is the crystallization of human civilization and the rules by which society operates. International treaties have legal validity. People can point out that these treaties and laws were created with the foreign powers in charge and that they are therefore disadvantageous to the weak countries and the poor people. People should continue to criticize and expose the flaws and go through various negotiations using different types of pressures to set up new regulations and treaties. But before the revisions take place, we must still continue to abide by them or else we create unnecessary chaos which are detrimental to the weaker nations and the poor people in the final analysis.

During the 19th and 20th centuries, people in China have done many "illegal" things. The Boxer incident is one example. The important thing to note is that there are still people who regard those barbarous activities as "revolution." In the 90's of the twentieth century, there are still people who regard the viewpoint of abiding by international treaties as treasonous surrender that ought to be seriously denounced!

In the end, this is still the poisonous residue of the vulgarization of revolution.

We must wake up and see that in the social domain, the true revolution is one that causes the system to be revolutionized. The Celestial Kingdom of Peace and the Boxers do not fit this requirement. These distortions actually vulgarize the revolution and there will be a price to be paid later on.

You should not underestimate the consequences of this mis-education. It is against commonsense and rationality to distort the historical truth in the name of the "revolution" and the direct ill effects of praising the Boxers were exposed during the Cultural Revolution. The Red Guard setting fire to the British consulate is the replica of the Boxers' action; the mania to eliminate all foreign things in the "Anti-Four Olds," "Anti-Imperialism" and "Anti-Revisionism" campaigns had the same logic as the Boxers' desire to destroy the foreigners.

The logic presented in the above textbooks is no different. Their common points are: 1. The current Chinese culture is superior and unmatched. 2. Outside culture is evil and corrodes the purity of the existing culture. 3. We should or could use political power or the dictatorship of the mob to violently erase all the evil in the field of cultural thinking. To use these kinds of logic in order to quietly exert a subtle influence on our children is an unforgivable harm no matter what the objective intent was.

In order to cultivate modern citizens with rational thoughts based upon the rule of law for the modernization project, now is the moment to correct those errors.

Wiki boxer rebellion

Empress Dowager most remembered sayings

* (1)天下,乃我爱新覺羅之天下

Translation: 爱新覺羅 Aisin Gioro, was the clan name of the Manchu emperors of the Qing dynasty . The word aisin means gold in the Manchu language, and "gioro" means clan in the Manchu language.

天下,Literary it means everything under the heaven.Used in this context,it means CHINA as a nation.Empress Dowager was saying CHINA ,is the property of the Aisin Gioro clan.It is our family's private property,and has got nothing to do with anyone else.

* (2)量中华之物力，结与国之欢心

After the Manchu Dynasty's humiliating defeat by the Eight Nations Alliance,the western powers demanded huge compensations.To this,Empress replied:量中华之物力, 中华,the original,and the oldest name of CHINA.The whole phrase translate:We have to put together,and offer whatever CHINA can manage to supply.结与国之欢心 translate:Have to try to satisfy foreign nation's desires,and make them happy. Put the two phrase together,we can then work out,that Empress Dowager always put the interests of Aisin Gioro clan at first priority,anything else is secondly.

* (3)宁与友邦，不与家奴 ,was a statement made by Empress Dowager during the siege of Peking by the Eight Nation Alliance. 家奴,private slaves,because Manchu's ancestors was a nomadic tribe 女真 nuchen,or jurchen,there was only two social classes:master,slave.You are either master,or slave.So Manchu rulers called their subjects "slaves" 奴,奴才,which in itself is a Manchu word.In making this statement,Dowager was saying she would give away anythings the foreign nations demanded,and will not give it to her own slaves(her countryman)

[edit] Failure of the Hundred Days' Reform

The Hundred Day's Reform ( 戊戌變法); 11 June 1898 - 21 September 1898) was started. The leaders of the reform were Guangxu Emperor, Kang Youwei ( 康有為) and Liang Qichao ( 梁啟超). Eventually, it ended in a coup d'état led by Empress Dowager Cixi.
Even though Emperor Guangxu was a physically and mentally weak person,he still hoped that the Hundred Days' Reform will turn China into a strong and modern nation.However,with the conservative Empress flexing her powerful political muscle behind,the reform failed in about 100 days.

The Dragon Empress Dowager ,then staged a coup d'etat by putting then young Emperor Guangxu under house arrest in the middle of a lake,and had trusted eunuchs to keep watch,even though the Emperor was her own nephew.However,the western powers preferred Emperor Guangxu to stay at the throne,and kept on pressuring Dowager to cease control of the Emperor.
Dowager refused,and started plotting with some officials to punish the foreign powers by recruiting the Boxer to kill foreign missionaries and Chinese converts,end up causing Peking,an ancient imperial capital,to be sacked and looted by an international army.

[edit] Righteous Harmony Society 義和團

* At the beginning of the 20th century,China,for the past 260 plus years,had been under the rule of a barbaric tribe,Manchu,which had a population of fewer then 500 thousands at the beginning.The conquering of China(the majority of the population was Han 漢族) was through brute force and massacres,resulting in the annihilation of tens of millions of people.
* The barbaric law "To keep your hair,you lose your head" 留髮不留頭,which killed millions of Han,was designed to cow Han people into submission,as Manchu chieftains forced Han male to shave off the hair on their forehead,and grow a pigtail at the back. When Dr.Sun Yat Sen called for a revolution to overthrow the inhuman and primitive Manchu tribal chieftains,he started with cutting off his own pigtail,as a signal of the beginning of the revolution.
* Manchu Emperors,even though they had copied Ming Dynasty's Imperial system to govern the country,in essence they still treated all their subjects as slaves,and Master own everything,including the life of the slaves.When western diplomats came to Manchu palace to see the emperors,all diplomats had to kneel in front of the emperors too,same like the rest of the emperor's subjects.Moreover,Manchu emperors treated all foreigners "Barbarians",even though they themselves were not far from it.

* When hungry peasants from famine area started to form groups with name "Righteous Harmony Society",their initial objectives were to fight the Manchu chieftains.One of the original slogans was "反清復明" "To end the Manchu's rule,To bring back Ming Dynasty"(Which was also the slogan of the present day Chinese underground Triad)
* However,Empress Dowager saw the value in them.She sent her officials to turn this "Righteous Harmony Society" into a mod that began killing foreign missionaries and native christians.She wanted to punish those western powers who supported emperor Guangxu's Hundred Days' Reform.She could not use the Imperial army,she had to find an alternative.Hence the beginning of the Boxer rebellion,with a new agenda,and slogan "扶清滅洋".Literally,it means "To support Qing's rule,To exterminate all the things foreign"

* During the siege of the Peking legation which went on for two months,Empress Dowager did not step in to offer protection for foreign diplomats and their families.And the provision of protection to foreign diplomats is a universal law being adopted by human civilization for thousands of years.In the years of 1900,Manchu tribal chieftains chose to remain ignorant and barbaric by murdering foreign diplomats and missionaries,then they should not be surprised to see foreign soldiers marching into their palace.

[edit] BMS Missionaries Beheaded

By 1900 Baptist Missionary Society, along with many other missioanry organisations, had sent hundreds of missionaries to China's Shanxi province, including Taiyuan, the main city.In August 1900, an article in the mission's magazine Missionary Herald published a letter from Shanxi hinting that there was "[a] terrible cloud that hangs fierce and ominous over China". The news gradually emerged that there had been a massacre at Taiyuan.
Missionary Herald, through letters and telegrams, were able to tell readers and relatives in Britain,what did their loved ones went through during 1900.The suffering and humiliation,and death,endured by the missionaries and their families,was considered "the darkest and most tragic episodes of BMS world mission's history.

One of the telegram on 10/1900 Missionary Herald :"Mission houses in Taiyuan burned…. Missionaries fled there… promised safety, immediately massacred, altogether thirty-three Protestants. "
12/1900 Missionary Herald:"tells of their discovery in a cave, where for five days they had been without food, and how, after promise of escort to the coast, they were cast into prison and afterwards murdered inside the city gate… the entire mission staff in the Province of Shanxi has perished. "
Missionary Herald reported again:The Shanxi governor Yuxian,with the full support of the Empress Dowager, ordered:"Foreign religions are reckless and oppressive, disrespectful to the gods and oppressive to the people. The righteous people(read Boxer) will burn and kill. "
It was very clear that Empress Dowager,the Manchu Dynasty supreme ruler,was giving the orders to both its governor Yuxian,and the Boxer,"it is OK to kill foreign missionaries and christian converts,the Imperial Court will back you up"
Missionary Herald further reported that at Taiyuan,the then governor sent in soldiers to round up missionaries,stripped them to the waist,and beheaded them in front of the governor's residence.It was the same at Xinzhou,another city,where 8 missionaries were put into a dungeon for two weeks before they were beheaded at the gate of the city.

[edit] Orthodox Missionaries burnt to death

Russian orthodox church,had set up mission in China at the end of the seventeenth century.A former Buddhist temple near Beijing was converted into a church dedicated to Saint Nicholas, and church vestments and holy objects were sent from the Imperial Court in Russia.
When Manchu Emperor Kangxi had discovered that local Roman Catholic missionaries followed orders from the Pope,Emperor Kangxi and his successors began persecutions against Christians.Because of persecution,the then Russian Emperor Peter The Great asked the orthodox church to stay low key,not to upset the Ch'ing dynasty or other missionary.
The orthodox church's record has shown:Quote:By June 1900, placards calling for the death of foreigners and Christians covered the walls around Beijing. Armed bands combed the streets of the city, setting fire to homes and "with imperial blessing" killing Chinese Christians and foreigners.Unquoted.
On 10/6/1900,about 70 followers of Saint Mitrophan,and his 8 years old son,were all stabbed and burnt to death.

[edit] Jesuit priests beheaded.

The Jesuit priests,Father Isore and Father Andlauer,were both killed at a chapel,quote:Then they beheaded them and displayed the heads of the Jesuits on the village gates as a brutal warning of what awaited Christians who did not return to their ancestral religion. Unquoted.

[edit] English Professor Henry Hart

Prpfessor's great-grandfather was a larger then life figure.Among many things,he was
(1) a spy and advisor for Chiang Kai-shek,the leader of China's Kuomintang,
(2) advisor on Mongolian affairs for the Chinese president and self-declared emperor Yuan Shikai,
(3) sold 23,000 horses for the Chinese army.
Professor Henry Hart's grandmother,enchanted him with tales about how her father had saved her and numerous missionary families during China's Boxer Rebellion.
During those times,Boxers blamed “foreign devils” like his great-grandparents for causing northern China's drought and famine, exacerbating economic hardships by building railroads and telegraph lines (because such modern conveniences eliminated jobs), undermining the native textile industry with European imports, infecting and killing Chinese children with Christian prayers and for various other real and imagined infamies.
The great-grandfather had left him a journal,into it he wrote a first-person's account,on how, he and some hired Mongols fought off a group of barbaric attacking Boxers with wooden sticks,without firing a single shot from his old Winchester rifle.
Later on he led a group of fleeing missionaries for two months through the Gobi Desert and the rest of Mongolia to Siberia.
The valuable information kept in the journal included the fact that the Boxer uprising ultimately claimed the lives of more than 32,000 Chinese Christians and several hundred foreign missionaries (historian Nat Brandt called it “the greatest single tragedy in the history of Christian evangelicalism”).

[edit] 30,000 Chinese Roman Catholics martyred

Reports on Oversea Missionary Fellowship on Chinese Martyrs
Manchu Dynasty signing of the 1860 Peking Convention,enabled the Roman Catholic Church to build schools,colleges and hospitals,resulting in large number of catholic missionaries to work in China.

The following list complied by the Oversea Missionary Fellowship says it all:
Catholic Chinese Martyrs
30,000 Chinese Martyrs Roman Catholics
2000 Chinese Martyrs Protestants
35 Protestant Martyrs missionaries, 53 children
47 Roman Catholic priests & nuns
CIM losses - 58 missionaries, 21 children

First-hand eye-witness's account.

(1) William S Fleming, an Australian, had become the first CIM martyr. Fleming died trying to protect his friend and assistant Pan Shoushan, a Black Miao convert. Pan Shoushan was also martyred.
(2) At the end of 1899, a missionary from the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts was murdered.
(3) On 24 June 1900, Empress Dowager issued a decree ordering the destruction of all ‘foreign devils’. The hated barbarians were to be driven out of China.Westerners and Chinese Christians were hunted down, and houses, schools and churches burnt to the ground.
(4) Chang Yuwen, a 17-year-old Chinese Christian, was cut into pieces and his body nailed to a wall in Tangshan, Hebei Province. Others were shot, stabbed, stoned, run over by carts or strangled.
(5)Chen Xikong, another Christian in Hebei Province, had his heart cut out and placed on a stone. Some missionaries died, still kneeling in prayer.
(6)CIM worker Gilbert Ritchie wrote, ‘Alas, only a very few of my beloved fellow missionaries in the province of Shanxi escaped the blood-stained hands of the Boxers.’ One of those martyred was Ritchie’s Chinese helper, a converted Buddhist priest.
(7) The Boxers entered Tianjin waving the heads of murdered missionaries, and were joined by imperial troops.
(8)One missionary, dying on the way to Hanzhou, whispered to her husband, ‘I wish I could have lived, I wish I could have gone back there to tell the people more about Jesus.’
(9)Those who escaped death, but had lost everything else, had only one thought - to return to their beloved Chinese as soon as possible.
(10)The Empress Dowager returned, and died in 1908, having given instructions for Emperor Guangxu to be poisoned. She outlived him by one day, not realising that the Manchu dynasty itself had only three years to live.


* Diana Prestonand "The Boxer Rebellion"

On the Federation of American Scientist web site, Voice of America's reporter Stephanie Mann,had an in depth interview with Diana Preston,a British journalist and writer,who had just published her new book "The Boxer Rebellion"

Diana Preston,through her book,provides a detail examination of a mini war that was fought 100 years ago,and she tries to give it a new perspective.In her own word:"this was the first example of international policing and was the precursor to what has become a common activity of NATO and the United Nations.
Even though 100 years had passed,majority of Chinese still considered it a national shame for China,because an international army had marched into Peking and looted the Royal Palace,burnt the Royal Garden,and then demand huge amount of "war compensation",just because they were the victors.


* Pope Canonizes 120 Killed in China and One American

New York Times's Alessandra Stanley reported on 2/10/2000.Stanley said:"China had no saints before today. By canonizing as martyrs 87 Chinese believers and 33 European missionaries killed between 1648 and 1930, John Paul sought to send a strong signal to China's beleaguered underground Catholics, who are loyal to the pope."
Stanley also said:"Most of the 120 martyrs died in the anti-Western, anti-Christian Boxer Rebellion in the 19th century, which China still reveres as an heroic resistance to imperialists."

Below is the list of the list of martyres canonized by the Vatican on 1/10/2000.
(a)Martyrs of Shanxi, killed on 9 July 1900, who were Franciscan Friars Minor:


Blessed Gregory Grassi, Bishop,
Blessed Francis Fogolla, Bishop,
Blessed Elias Facchini, Priest,
Blessed Theodoric Balat, Priest,
Blessed Andrew Bauer, Religious Brother;

(b) Martyrs of Southern Hunan, who were also Franciscan Friars Minor:

Blessed Anthony Fantosati, Bishop (martyred on 7 July 1900),
Blessed Joseph Mary Gambaro, Priest (martyred on 7 July 1900),
Blessed Cesidio Giacomantonio, Priest (martyred on 4 July 1900).

Of the martyrs belonging to the Franciscan family, there were also eleven Secular Franciscans, all Chinese:

Blessed John Zhang Huan, seminarian,
Blessed Patrick Dong Bodi, seminarian,
Blessed John Wang Rui, seminarian,
Blessed Philip Zhang Zhihe, seminarian,
Blessed John Zhang Jingguang, seminarian,
Blessed Thomas Shen Jihe, layman and a manservant,
Blessed Simon Qin Cunfu, lay catechist,
Blessed Peter Wu Anbang, layman,
Blessed Francis Zhang Rong, layman and a farmer,
Blessed Matthew Feng De, layman and neophyte,
Blessed Peter Zhang Banniu, layman and labourer.

To these are joined a number of Chinese lay faithful:

Blessed James Yan Guodong, farmer,
Blessed James Zhao Quanxin, manservant,
Blessed Peter Wang Erman, cook.

Among these were four French Jesuit missionaries and at least 52 Chinese lay Christians: men, women and children – the oldest of them being 79 years old, while the youngest were aged only nine years.
All suffered martyrdom in the month of July 1900. Many of them were killed in the church in the village of Tchou-Kia-ho, in which they were taking refuge and where they were in prayer together with the first two of the missionaries listed below:

Blessed Leo Mangin, S.J., Priest,
Blessed Paul Denn, S.J., Priest,
Blessed Rémy Isoré, S.J., Priest,
Blessed Modeste Andlauer, S.J., Priest.

Blessed Mary Zhu born Wu, aged about 50 years,
Blessed Peter Zhu Rixin, aged 19,
Blessed John Baptist Zhu Wurui, aged 17,
Blessed Mary Fu Guilin, aged 37,
Blessed Barbara Cui born Lian, aged 51,
Blessed Joseph Ma Taishun, aged 60,
Blessed Lucy Wang Cheng, aged 18,
Blessed Mary Fan Kun, aged 16,
Blessed Mary Chi Yu, aged 15,
Blessed Mary Zheng Xu, aged 11 years,
Blessed Mary Du born Zhao, aged 51,
Blessed Magdalene Du Fengju, aged 19,
Blessed Mary du born Tian, aged 42,
Blessed Paul Wu Anjyu, aged 62,
Blessed John Baptist Wu Mantang, aged 17,
Blessed Paul Wu Wanshu, aged 16,
Blessed Raymond Li Quanzhen, aged 59,
Blessed Peter Li Quanhui, aged 63,
Blessed Peter Zhao Mingzhen, aged 61,
Blessed John Baptist Zhao Mingxi, aged 56,
Blessed Teresa Chen Tinjieh, aged 25,
Blessed Rose Chen Aijieh, aged 22,
Blessed Peter Wang Zuolung, aged 58,
Blessed Mary Guo born Li, aged 65,
Blessed Joan Wu Wenyin, aged 50,
Blessed Zhang Huailu, aged 57,
Blessed Mark Ki-T'ien-Siang, aged 66,
Blessed Ann An born Xin, aged 72,
Blessed Mary An born Guo, aged 64,
Blessed Ann An born Jiao, aged 26,
Blessed Mary An Linghua, aged 29,
Blessed Paul Liu Jinde, aged 79,
Blessed Joseph Wang Kuiju, aged 37,
Blessed John Wang Kuixin, aged 25,
Blessed Teresa Zhang born He, aged 36,
Blessed Lang born Yang, aged 29,
Blessed Paul Lang Fu, aged 9,
Blessed Elizabeth Qin born Bian, aged 54,
Blessed Simon Qin Cunfu, aged 14,
Blessed Peter Liu Zeyu, aged 57,
Blessed Ann Wang, aged 14,
Blessed Joseph Wang Yumei, aged 68,
Blessed Lucy Wang born Wang, aged 31,
Blessed Andrew Wang Tianqing, aged 9,
Blessed Mary Wang born Li, aged 49,
Blessed Chi Zhuze, aged 18,
Blessed Mary Zhao born Guo, aged 60,
Blessed Rose Zhao, aged 22,
Blessed Mary Zhao, aged 17,
Blessed Joseph Yuan Gengyin, aged 47,
Blessed Paul Ge Tingzhu, aged 61,