2008年10月14日 星期二

Yuan Weishi on wiki

Yuan Weishi
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Yuan Weishi (袁伟时), is a professor of philosophy at Zhongshan University in Guangzhou, China. He was born in Xingning, Guangdong, December 1931.

In the January 2006 issue of Bingdian ,professor Yuan published an essay titled Modernisation and History Textbooks, criticizing the official theme of government issued middle schools history textbooks,claiming that they contain numbers of distortions of the historical accounts. Professor Yuan said:"The public,especially the students, have the right to find out the true historical facts." .[1]". [1][2],
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Modernization and History Text Books
o 1.1 Was the burning of the Yuanming Garden(Old Summer Palace) unavoidable
o 1.2 The role of the Manchu ruler Xianfeng and Prince Sengelinqin
o 1.3 History,according to the school text books
o 1.4 Boxer rebels, murderers or patriots?
* 2 References

[edit] Modernization and History Text Books

Professor Yuan stated that China's early disastrous events such as Anti-Rightist Campaign, the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, is the result of the 'drinking of wolf's milk' by the ordinary Chinese population. Recently when he was glancing through some high school textbooks, he "was stunned to find out: our youth are still drinking the wolf's milk!"[3]

[edit] Was the burning of the Yuanming Garden(Old Summer Palace) unavoidable

Professor Yuan asked:"Was the burning of thr Old Summer Palace unavoidable?" The Yuanming Garden was burnt by the British and French invasion forces during the Second Opium War.
Professor Yuan stated that Chinese middle school history textbooks "failed to mention the two basic root causes of this (opium) war".

*
o The Manchu ruler did not carry out Treaty of Jiangning, in which "an important clause was that the English officials and merchants be allowed to enter and leave Guangzhou city freely", Manchu official simply ignored this request by the British for about ten years, "until it had to be settled in the battlefield".
o The Manchu officials did not carry out the Treaty of Wangsha: "All trade and customs matters may be modified according to circumstances."

Chinese(Han ethnic 漢族 ) scholars and officials such as Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, Feng Guifen, Guo Songdao and others repeatedly sounded warnings to Manchu Imperial court:"do not let the small things create huge trouble" and to no avail.

[edit] The role of the Manchu ruler Xianfeng and Prince Sengelinqin

In 1858, the English, French, Russians and Americans forced the Manchu Court into submission by signing the Treaty of Tianjin, and in 1859 "to complete the legal procedure", letter of approval was to be exchanged in Beijing. Manchu officials instead chose to open fire on French and British envoys, who were there to exchange "letter of approval", resulting in the sinking of four gunboats and damaging six.
The Emperor Xianfeng and Prince Sengelinqin had committed major crimes. Unlike the inaccurate description presented by the school text books, Emperor Xianfeng and Prince Sengelinqin's intention was to have the English and French envoys taking the longer detour, so that ambush on the foreigners can be set up. On 10 April 1859, Prince Sengelinqin's aid Guo Songdao wrote:"Prince Yi has come to the camp....said he has the Emperor's secret order:If foreigners enter without following our rules, you can attack them in stealth, and then blame it on civilian armed forces, not us imperial soldiers. I then suggest, if we as imperial soldiers telling lies, it might not be that convincing; may be we need more discussion. Prince Yi just laugh at me.....Decision was then made for foreigners to enter at Beitong and then detour around to Tianjin. Guo Songdao revealed more details: "Prince Sen's stealth attack of the foreigners was the cause of the foreign disaster. From last year, the Emperor had issued more then a dozen imperial orders to get them to stay outside of the river, while waiting for instructions. When the foreign ships had entered the inner river for as long as nine days, Prince Sen did not make any effort to make contact or to give instructions. Instead, he ordered the soldiers to remove army uniforms, disguised as "armed civilians", then staged military attacks."
Zeng Guofan had told his aides: "In the ninth year(AD.1858) of Xianfeng, the foreigners came to exchange the treaty documents. Prince Sengelinqin set up a trap and sunk their boats, and the whole country celebrated. In the tenth year(1859), the foreigners returned ... the capital fell and the whole country was nearly taken over by the foreigners. I once said that Prince Sen was the cause of this humiliation, he should commit suicide in apology to the whole country." The eye witness account of Great Britian embassador coincide with the description of Zeng Guofan and Gao Songdao. It can be concluded:

*
o
+ Emperor Xianfeng had decided to order soldiers to stage stealth attacks on the foreign envoys while disguised as "armed civilians", and he repeatedly ordered that the foreigners must be made aware of the soldiers' intention and ability to attack.
+ Prince Sen carried out the Emperor's order of "stealth attack", but he chose not to demonstrate the intention to attack,and resolutely rejected his aides' advices.He was the sole designer of the plot to trap the foreign envoys.
+ This was a disaster that brought shame and the lost of integrality of the whole country. Many Chinese(Han) officials such as Zeng Guofan, Guo Songdao, Wu Rulun as well as Li Hongzhang, Feng Guifen made severe criticisms and parables towards this disaster.

[edit] History,according to the school text books

What is most shocking, in these 1990s era, our school history text books are still singing to the tunes of Emperor Xianfeng and Prince Sen. The following is the school text books' version of the 1858 Manchu soldiers' ambush of the foreigners:"The English ambassador and French ambassador led their respective fleets north to Daguhou in order to enter Peking to exchange diplomatic documents. The Manchu Court demanded that the treaty envoys land at Beitong and proceed to Peking through Tianjin, and also requested that the armed personnel on the gunboats not to disembark. The English and French ambassadors counted on their military power and insisted that they will land at Daguhou and would march towards Peking along the White River. When the rude and rough fleets invaded Daguhou, the defending soldiers at Daguhou batteries opened fire at the invaders.(note:the foreign diplomatic envoys were there to exchange diplomatic documents, had been delibilately labeled as 'invaders' by the text books editors).Shells were falling accurately on top of the invading arm forces, sinking four gunboats, damaging six gunboats, causing the remaining three gunboats to hoist white flags and flee.During the firefighting, 900 of the invading army try to come on shore, but they were all being fought back. The invading force's casualties came to a few hundreds. Folks from around Dagu ignored the raining bullets and forests of guns, bringing cakes and noodles to the defending warriors, and exhibiting high degree of patriotism." Under the pen of the history text book editors, the ambush was turned into a marching song of patriotic hero, the leading character is soldiers and plain folks. " Is it the true historical account? There are many questions to be asked.

Professor Yuan stated that Hong Kong middle school text books are "much better edited than those in the mainland". Hong Kong text books's "presentation matches the historical reality and does not damage national interests". When it was well known that the Hong Kong editors were better qualified historians, Professor Yuan asked: "Why couldn't the mainland colleagues learn to do the same?"

In the government issued history text books, the 1859's sinking of foreign gunboats are penned as patriotic and heroic act. Professor Yuan argued that the editors of history text books got it all wrong, and stated that had the "letter of approval" were to be exchanged smoothly, the nineteen century Chinese history would have to be rewritten.

*
o In 1860 British and French forces invaded Peking and Yuanming Garden was rooted and then burnt.
o The new Treaty of Peking impose additional penalties on the Manchu Court. "The compensation to England and France went respectively from the original 4 and 2 million taels(of silver) to 8 million taels(of silver) each".
o Kowloon district was conceded;
o "French missionaries can rent or buy land in all the provinces and build at will."

"Would it be better for China if the battle had not taken place?" Professor Yuan asked.

[edit] Boxer rebels, murderers or patriots?

Professor Yuan scrutinized the accuracy of school history text books, and established that "the United Armies of the Eight Nations entered Peking, arson, murders and looting was committed"; "The Russians committed the shocking massacre at Hailanpao and Jiangdong Liushisitun" Only the above statement is factual, the rest of the text books are full of errors.

*
o School text books fail to highlight the Boxers' barbaric and murderous hostility towards modern civilization and western foreigners and local Chinese christian converts. Among all the evils the Boxers did:
+ (1)cut down telegraph lines
+ (2)destroyed schools and churches
+ (3) demolished railroad tracks
+ (4)burned foreign merchandise
+ (5) murdered foreigners and all Chinese who had any connection of foreign culture.

Prosessor Yuan mourns:"these criminal actions brought unspeakable suffering to the nation and its people! These are all facts that everybody knows, and it is a national shame that the Chinese people cannot forget. Yet our children's compulsory textbooks will not speak about it."

*
o
+ School text books fail to condemn the Boxers' barbaric burning, killing and looting of innocent human beings.Professor stated that, not only the Boxers were savages,the Manchu official Yu Xian was no different. On 27/6/1856, he started with burning down the Taiyuan foreigner owned hospital, and went to a church to round up 210 women and children aged between 5 to 30 years old. Two weeks later, he went to foreigners area again, this time he caught 44 foreigners of all ages, plus 17 Chinese converts, and all of them were beheaded on market place watched by the public. One of the then newspaper even reported:"Foreigners were afraid when news about Peking massacre were reported. When foreigners went to official Yu Xian and asked for protection, but were tricked and round up and annihilated. Yu Xian personally killed a few foreigners using knife. "And Yu Xian was not alone. Dai Lan , Dai Xun , Gang Yi , who were all under imperial order(from Empress Dowager) to command the Boxers,were as savage and violent as Yu Xian,if not more.

Professor Yuan's research had also shown that most of the members of the Boxers were ignorant peasants, and a lot of them were plain robbers and thugs. Between 24 June and 24 July 1900, 231 foreigners were murdered by the Boxers, among them were 23 children. In Shanxii alone, there were 5700 Chinese catholic were murdered; mostly by the Boxers, some by the imperial army. In Liaonin , more then thousands converts were killed. In Hebei, killings were conducted all over the place, and cover every county. In some county thousands were being murdered, and houses were burned down. Even in Zhejiang, thousands of catholic families were burned and murdered. The worst massacre happened in Peking, and nobody will ever know how many, because there was no written record handed down. According to some eyewitness's account:16 June 1900, boxers bandits burned De Ji Drug Store , fire was spreaded to food shop, Lamp City Street , Kwang Yin Buddha Temple , Jewellery Market , about 4000 plus shops were burned down, and the fire continued into daybreak. The Boxers stopped any attempts of putting out the fire. The destroyed area was the capital's most busy districts. Peking city was being looted and burned for days, anyone whom the Boxers were unhappy of, would be called converts, and the whole family would be killed. At least hundreds of thousands of ordinary folks were murdered. Peking at its peak time, the population was near 4 millions.Ever since the start of the Boxers Rebellion, the whole city was being looted and burned, many houses were empty, foxes came out in the daylight, and people were like walking among cemetery. This was the result of the so-called Boxers Revolution.

[edit] References

1. ^ "Modernisation and History Textbook original Chinese text". Retrieved on 2008-09-24.
2. ^ "The High School History Textbook Debate in China By Charles W. Hayford Mr. Hayford is Visiting Scholar, Department of History, Northwestern University.". Retrieved on 2008-09-24.
3. ^ "History Textbooks in China", Eastsouthwestnorth. Retrieved on 2008-10-12.

2008年9月14日 星期日

评西方传教士《论语》翻译的基督教化倾向 [引用 2008-06-06

内容提要:西方传教士来华的目的是传播福音和归化中国。为了更好地为传教服务,他们中的许多人进行儒经的翻译和研究。传教士翻译《论语》的动机是要从该典籍中找到基督教是真理且优于儒教的证据,并证明耶儒有相通之处,进而用基督教代替儒教。传教士翻译《论语》的策略是对儒学作“神学化”诠释,用基督教神学附会儒学。
  关键词 传教士 《论语》翻译 基督教化
  〔中图分类号〕B222;B975 〔文献标识码〕A 〔文章编号〕0447-662X(2008)02-0042-
  06
 
  1.引言
  基督教自明末清初再次传入我国,揭开了中西文化较大规模交流的序幕。无论是十六、十七世纪的耶稣会传教士还是十八、十九世纪的新教传教士,西方传教士的根本使命就是要传播福音和归化中国,是希望用西方基督教文化来改造中国儒家文化。传教士到达中国不久,就认识到理解和适应中国文化、调和并会通基儒关系的重要性。鉴于儒学在中国文化和意识形态中的重要地位,他们把翻译和研究儒家经典当作是其宗教事业的一个重要组成部分,一方面是为了更好地熟悉中国传统文化以及中国人的思维和行为方式,更有针对性地教化其国人;另一方面是为了证明基督教优于儒教,基督教和儒教有相通之处,企图用基督教取代儒教。《论语》作为儒家思想的重要典籍,自然成为西方传教士翻译和评介最多的文献之一。
  
  2.耶稣会传教士的《论语》翻译
  明末清初耶稣会士东来是在相对平等的基础上输入文化,以利玛窦为首的传教士采取了尊重中国文化和习俗的适应性传教策略。他们在翻译和评介儒经时着力寻找儒教和基督教的共同之处,并以基督教义来诠释儒家思想,以求得东西方宗教和哲学的会通。
  率先在中国本土将《论语》翻译成西方语言的是意大利耶稣会传教士利玛窦(Matteo Ricci,1552-1610)。早在1593年,他就把《四书》翻译成拉丁文,并把它寄回欧洲,取名为《中国四书》(Tetrabiblion Sinense de Moribus)。他在1594年11月15日致德&S226;法比神父的信中说:“几年前我着手翻译著名的中国‘四书’为拉丁文,它是一本值得一读的书,是伦理格言集,充满卓越的智慧之书。待明年整理妥后,再寄给总会长神父,届时你就可以阅读欣赏了。”(注:利玛窦:《利玛窦书信集》,罗渔译,台湾光启出版社,1986年,第143页。)
  艾儒略(J. Aleni)的《太西利先生行迹》上说:“利子[利玛窦]曾将中国《四书》译为西文,寄回本国,国人读而悦之。”(注:范存忠:《中国文化在启蒙时期的英国》,上海外语教育出版社,1991年,第10页。)虽然该译文经常在利玛窦的书信和述评中提及,但是并未出版,而且译稿早已失传。
  把《四书》译成拉丁文并出版的是意大利耶稣会士殷铎泽(Prospero Intorcetta, 1625-1696)和葡萄牙耶稣会士郭纳爵(Ignatius da Costa, 1599-1666)。他们合译了《大学》,取名《中国的智慧》(Sapientia Sinica),1662年用木板刻于江西建昌,后带往欧洲。殷铎泽又将《中庸》译出,取名《中国的政治伦理学》(Sinarum Scientia Politico-moralis),1667和1692年分别刻印于广州和印度果阿,1672年重版于巴黎,书末附有《孔子传》。《论语》的最早译本,也出于两人之手,刻于印度果阿,但未题刻年。
  《论语》最早在欧洲刊印的西文版本是1687年在巴黎出版的拉丁文本《中国哲学家孔子》(Confucius Sinarum Philosophus),由刚从中国回来的比利时耶稣会会士柏应理(Philippe Couplet,1624-1692)主持编译。柏应理1659年来华传教,于1662年和同伴共同以拉丁文翻译了《大学》和《论语》的前五章,书名为《中国箴言》(Sapientia Sinica)。《中国哲学家孔子》是来华耶稣会士的集体之作,参编者有殷铎泽、比利时耶稣会士鲁日满、奥地利耶稣会士恩理格等共17名传教士。中文标题为《西书四书直解》,书中有中国经典导论、《孔子传》和《大学》、《中庸》、《论语》的拉丁译文。其译文都是用殷铎泽、郭纳爵的译本,并附注疏。柏应理为此书写了一篇很长的序言,开宗明义地说明这本书是为了传播福音所做,是供来华的传教士使用的。为了这个目的,他们从中国文献中挑选出这些内容,以使到中国的传教士对中国文化有所了解。如果一些外行人看这部书,也应从传播福音的角度加以理解。所以他们在对《大学》、《中庸》、《论语》翻译中没有忠于原文的含义,而是从基督教的角度做了重新的说明。(注:张西平:《传教士汉学研究》,大象出版社,2005年,第141-142页。)该版本在欧洲产生了广泛的影响,还分别于1688年和1691年被翻译成了法文和英文。
  在18世纪早期,比利时耶稣会士卫方济(Francois Nol,1651-1729)神父出版了《中国六大经典》(Sinensis Imperii Libri Classici Sex),其中包括《大学》、《中庸》、《论语》、《孟子》和《孝经》、《三字经》的拉丁文译本。他基本采取直译方法,不仅翻译文本,而且选译历代注疏。该版本中含有许多背离孔子原意的解释性的评注,但它还是被当成是当时有关孔子的最好作品(注:Cheuk-Woon Taam. On Studies of Confucius. Philosophy East & West, 1953 (2): 147-165.)。
  法国传教士顾赛芬(Seraphin Couvreur,1839-1919)于1853年入耶稣会,1870年来中国传教。他是19世纪和20世纪法国汉学家中,翻译和研究中国典籍成绩最卓著者之一。他几乎翻译了所有的中国经典,包括《四书》(1895)、《诗经》(1896)、《书经》(1897)、《礼记》(1899)、《春秋左传》(1914)等等。他通常用双语(法语和拉丁语)同时对汉语进行翻译,几乎是逐字逐句地直译中文原文,避免个人的解释和评论,其译文准确优雅。
  
  3.新教传教士的《论语》翻译
  近代西方传教士是在炮舰的护送下进入的,传教事业一开始就与列强的对华扩张结下了不解之缘,不少新教传教士任职于西方国家驻华使团或贸易公司。他们相信基督教是西方文明进步的原因,带着文化优越感和战胜者的姿态来改组中国文化。他们译介儒家经典更是为了证明基督教的优越性和普世性,所以在翻译时出现不少挪用和附会现象。
  
  马歇曼(Joshua Marshman,1768-1837)是英国浸礼会的一位传教士,于1809年出版了《论语》英文节译本(注:Joshua Marshman. trans. The Works of Confucius. Serampore: Mission Press, 1809.)。中国第一位新教传教士马礼逊(Robert Morrison,1782-1834)于1812年将《大学》翻译成了英语。英国伦敦会传教士柯大卫,第一个将《四书》译成英语,1828年在马六甲出版《四书译注》。柯大卫的翻译远远胜过其新教前任的译文,他提供了更加完全的《四书》译本,较少攻击孔子和儒教。
花之安(Ernst Faber,1838-1899)1865年受德国礼贤会派遣来华传教,并把《论语》、《孟子》、《列子》、《墨子》译成德文。他用英文撰写《史前中国》一书,还用英、德文著有《儒学汇纂》、《中国宗教学导论》等著作,被加拿大来华传教士季理斐誉为“十九世纪最高深的汉学家”,就连一向看不起外国汉学家的辜鸿铭对花氏也另眼相看。他指出:“儒学和基督教这两种体系有许多相似和相同之处,说明和了解这些有利于二者的信徒相互理解。”(注:陶飞亚:《边缘的历史――基督教与近代中国》,上海古籍出版社,2005年,第136页。)但是与17-18世纪的耶稣会传教士不同,花之安反对向儒家学说妥协的“文化适应 ”策略。他强调在孔子或儒家学说中存在“大量缺点或错误”,主张用基督教来补充和更正,并最终以基督教取而代之(注:孙立新:“评德国新教传教士花之安的中国研究”,《史学月刊》,2003年第2期,第45-54页。)。他呼吁中国改革,但是改革运动必须从接受基督教开始。若无基督教,所有努力都是徒劳。 
  
  理雅各(James Legge, 1815-1897)1839年受伦敦布道会派遣到马六甲任英华书院院长,从1840年开始学习《论语》并着手翻译。1843年随书院迁往香港后继续进行儒家经典的研究和翻译工作,经过二十余年的努力,终于完成“四书五经”的英译工程,书名为“中国经典”(The Chinese Classics),共分28卷,于1861-1868年出版。该译文大多采用直译,尽量遵循原文的思维形式和句法结构,用的是十九世纪书面语体英文,措词古雅,译笔严谨。理雅各的《中国经典》译本被公认为当时规模最为庞大、成就最为显著的汉学工程,被汉学家艾约瑟博士评价为“开创了汉学研究的新纪元”。 
  理雅各诠释《论语》和儒学带着传教士的价值取向。他认为,儒家《四书》阐述的道德教诲与基督教《四福音》的教义惊人地相似。他把孔子当成一个“宗教祖师”和“上帝的信使”,把儒学当成中国古代的宗教,“我们理解儒学与理解旧约和新约的基督教义没有什么两样。”
  (注:James Legge. The Religions of China: Confucianism and Taoism Described and Compared with Christianity. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1880, pp.6-7.)他之所以在《中国经典》中把《论语》翻译放在第一篇,是因为觉得有必要一开始就把孔子的故事当成中国古典传统的模范圣人来讲述,就像福音书里开篇就是讲耶稣的故事一样。因此《中国经典》第一卷的前言大部分篇幅是通过间接地比较耶稣的传记来审视孔子的生平。他觉得孔子的教义缺乏神学信仰和宗教内涵,认为孔子的非宗教性导致了后代的中国人对新教福音的宗教热情反应如此冷漠。在1861年的版本里,他不把孔子当成一个伟人,认为孔子并没有超越时代,也没有对一些世界性的问题提出答案。尤其值得谴责的是孔子“没有推动宗教”,而且“不支持进步”。(注:James Legge. The Chinese Classics, Vol. I. Hongkong: At the Author’s, 1861, p.113.)基于强烈的基督教传教士立场,他认为基督教优于孔教,耶稣必将代替孔子。他宣称,中国肯定要与基督教文明强国发生冲突,其结果是中国一定会被打得支离破碎,中国古代的圣人也没有留下什么遗产来挽救这种命运;中国人的希望在于抛弃古代的圣人而转向西方的上帝。虽然理雅各在1893年《四书》修订版中对孔子表示了一定的理解和尊敬,但其宗教立场没有丝毫改变。
  理雅各的宗教倾向在翻译中表现明显。他坚持认为,中国典籍中的“ 帝”或“上帝”就等于西方基督教的“神”,所以他在《中国经典》中都把“帝”和“上帝”翻译成God。他还同样把“天”对应成Heaven,认为中国人的 “天”与西方的Heaven一样都是指God的思想和概念。在《论语》英译中把“孝”字都译为Filial Piety,添加了强烈的宗教意味。理雅各翻译和评注《论语》时经常与《圣经》和基督信仰类比,并不时表现出对孔子的偏见。在第一篇注解中的题名解释时,说这种把每篇开头两个字作为题名的做法与犹太人的习惯相似,他们也用《圣经》中第一个单词来作为很多书的题目。在诠释“我不欲人之加诸我也,吾亦欲无加诸人”(5.11)时,认为福音书中的那条金律Do ye unto others as ye would that others should do unto you比《论语》和《中庸》里的类似表述更加高明②③④⑤James Legge. The Chinese Classics, Vol. I. Hongkong: At the Author’s, 1861, p.41、89、114、152、190.)。在对“仁者不忧”(9. 28))进行评价时,他说这种“仁”只有虔诚地相信上帝才能实现②。在评注“克己复礼为仁”(12.1)一章时,他强调,“克己”是克制和抛弃自己的私欲,亦即人性中道德堕落的成分――这就构成了基督教义中“原罪”的基础③。在评注“以德报怨”(14.36)一章时,他感叹,孔子“以直报怨、以德报德” 的伦理明显不如基督教的标准④。在评注“天何言哉”(17.19)一章时,理雅各认为,孔子把自己比做“天”,未免有妄自尊大之嫌⑤。
  苏慧廉(William Edward Soothill, 1861-1935)1882年被英国联合卫斯理教会授以牧师职并被派到中国温州传教。他同样强调传教士们熟悉儒家经典的重要意义,着手翻译《论语》并于 1910年出版。他把理雅各看成是自己的“引路人”、“哲学家”和“友人”,对于其译著中表现出来的渊博的学术造诣、刻意求精的治学态度、孜孜不倦的研究精神以及清晰明白的表达方式感到钦佩不已William Soothill. trans. The Analects of Confucius. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1937, preface.)。但是,苏慧廉在肯定理雅各译本的学术价值和卓越贡献时,也批评其学究气过浓措辞过于正式,难以被普通读者所接受。所以出于普及儒家经典的目的,他认为有必要提供一个更现代的崭新译本。苏慧廉的译文简洁流利、通俗地道,非常贴近原文的风格。但是他对孔子的评判同样存在偏见,对孔圣人的诠释也没有什么新意。
  同理雅各一样,苏慧廉英译《论语》时也经常表现出强烈的宗教立场,并添加了许多基督教成分。他同样自始至终地把“天 ”译成Heaven,“帝”或者“神”译成God,“孝”译成filial piety(duty)。他还把“兄弟”(221)、“夫子”(628)、“圣人”(1912)、“社”(321)分别对应成brethren、 sage、Sage、altars to the tutelary deities。译文中常常附加了原文中没有的宗教色彩,如“敬事而信”(1. 5)译成there must be religious attention to business and good faith,“天命”(168)译成the Divine Will(Soothill,1937:182),“命”(203)译成the divine law ,“子罕言利与命与仁”(91)译成The Master seldom spoke on profit, on the orderings of Providence, and on perfection.“死生有命,富贵在天”(12. 5)译成Death and life are divine dispensations, and wealth and honours are with Heaven.这里中国人的“生死”命运就完全受控于西方的上帝或神,儒教的天命观就成了基督徒的救赎观。“女弗能救与?”(36)译成Can you not save him from this sin?原文中本来是指季氏严重违礼和犯上的行为,却在译文中比拟成了有待拯救的宗教罪过。而在下面一段中,上帝、罪人、赎罪等基督教观念更加明显:
舜亦以命禹。曰:“予小子履,敢用玄牡,敢昭告于皇皇后帝:有罪不敢赦。帝臣不蔽,简在帝心。朕躬有罪,无以万方;万方有罪,罪在朕躬。”(201)
  And Shun in like terms charged Yu. T’ang said: ‘I thy child Li, Dare to use a black ox, And dare clearly to state to Thee, O Most August and Sovereign God, That the sinner I dare not spare, Nor keep Thy ministers, O God, in obscurity, As Thy heart, O God, discerns. If I have sinned, Let it not concern the country; If my country has sinned, Let the sin rest on me.’
  卫礼贤(Richard Wilhelm,1873-1930)是德国新教同善会传教士,1899-1921年在青岛传教,1910年出版了《论语》的德文翻译(注:Richard Wilhelm. trans. Kungfutse: Gesprache. Jena: E. Diederichs, 1923.),书中提供了直译和意译两种对应的翻译方法,其译作准确而详尽,朴实而清晰。他相信基督教义在整个世界都能适用,其翻译中也显示出明显的宗教影响,如分别将“天”、“道”、“德”译成“上帝”、“上帝之言”、“神之力”。他还把《孟子》、《大学》、《中庸》、《礼记》、《列子》、《庄子》、《易经》、《老子》、《吕氏春秋》等中国经典译成德文,还写过《孔子:其人和其作品》以及《孔子和儒家》等书。他对孔子深怀敬意,最终成了孔子的信徒。 1926年出版专著《中国心灵》,该书多处讨论孔子和儒家思想,认为孔子及其学说体现着中国精神的精髓。卫礼贤相信:孔子思想中永恒的东西——自然与文化的和谐这样伟大的真理依然会存在。它将是新哲学和人类新发展的巨大推动力。从这个角度讲,孔子真正是不朽的(注:卫礼贤:《中国心灵》,中国国际文化出版公司,1998年,第79页。)。卫礼贤能够客观公正地看待中国和中国文化,提出综合东西文化的主张,倡导东西两种不同文化的平等交流,希望通过翻译、讲座和出版的方式在东西方之间架起一座桥梁。
  
  4.传教士《论语》翻译的基督教化评析
  传教士翻译《论语》的动机是要从该典籍中找到基督教是真理且优于儒教的证据,并证明基督教和儒教有相通之处,进而用基督教代替儒教,以耶稣代替孔子。利玛窦说过:“我知我也模棱两可地翻译过几篇文章,拿来为我所用。”古莱神父在出版了自己翻译的孔子部分篇章的时候,也曾这么强调:“翻译的目的不在于把中国智慧带给欧洲学者,而是用来当着工具,使中国人皈依基督。”(注:马祖毅、任荣珍:《汉籍外译史》,湖北教育出版社,1997年,第35页。)教士们往往用基督教经院哲学穿凿附会的方法任意诠释中国经典,力图从中找出天主创造世界、灵魂不灭、天堂和地狱的存在并非虚构的依据。传教士们宣称,中国人信奉的上帝就是基督教中的神,他们在中国古代文献中寻找中国文化与基督教文化原为一体的依据,推行“孔子加耶稣”的传教策略。从利玛窦开始,耶稣会会士不断进行“合儒”、“补儒”、“ 益儒”、“超儒”的工作,强调儒家伦理与基督教真理间的一致性,“儒家这一教派的最终目的和总的意图是国内的太平和秩序。他们也期待家庭的经济安全和个人的道德修养。他们所阐述的箴言确实都是指导人们达到这些目的的,完全符合良心的光明与基督教的真理。”(注:利马窦、金尼阁:《利马窦中国札记》,何高济等译,中华书局,1983年,第104页。)耶稣会传教士和新教传教士们之所以对中国经典产生兴趣,主要是为了将基督教的意义,赋予古典文学作品和孔子的言行录里来为我所用。传教士们相信,中国人的“仁”类似于基督徒的“仁”,中国人的道德与基督教的道德没有什么差异,中国人的伦理和基督徒的伦理除动机外都相似。中国人的伦理完全是一种人道的伦理,完全出自理性;基督教的伦理则出自宗教教义和一种神的启示,但结果是产生了某些相似的道德。理雅各等十九世纪新教传教士认为,《以赛亚书》49:12中所说的地方Sinim应该就是指中国,上帝早就有计划要把中国人包括在“上帝的天国”之中,上帝的圣灵将会通过其基督首领的影响来完成这项基督化的工作(注:James Legge. The Land of Sinim. London: John Snow, 1859.)。美国公理会传教士明恩溥(Arthur H. Smith)把接受基督教文明看成是中国社会“唯一的迫切的需要”。传教士安保罗在教会报刊中鼓吹“儒教之差谬,儒书中不胜枚举”,宣扬《旧约圣经》“实较中国一切经传更古且确”,进而大言不惭地说:“儒教、孔子,人也;耶稣,上帝之子也。……当今之时,孔子若再生于中国,必愿为耶稣之徒也。”(注:安保罗:“救世教成全儒教说”,《万国公报》,光绪二十二年(1896)十二月。)林乐知、李佳白、花之安、理雅各、丁韪良、李提摩太等新教传教士发表了不少研究基督教与儒学关系的著作,以论证基儒相似相合,并不抵触。
  传教士翻译《论语》的策略是对儒学作“神学化”诠释,用基督教神学附会儒学。他们在译介中国典籍时突出强调中国宗教的内容,即其古代儒学与基督教有天然吻合性。他们也极力论证中国的古老历史是圣经传统的一支,中国人虽然没有明确的基督教教义指导,但他们所遵从的儒教道德为个人修养和社会管理带来的益处一如基督教义。他们反复搜罗引证中国古代关于“上帝”的语句,认为《尚书》和《大雅》中的上帝就是《圣经》中的造物主上帝,进而推导出“吾天主乃古经书所称上帝也。历观古书,而知上帝与天主,特异以名也。”(注:利玛窦:《天主实义》第二篇,北京大学宗教研究所,2000年。)。耶稣会士将中国人祭拜的无形之天等同于基督徒尊奉的人格化上帝,认为中国人所称的“天”、“上天”、“ 上帝”和“皇上帝”与欧洲人称呼上帝时所用的Lord,Almighty,Most High恰相对应。赫伯特&S226;芬格莱特指出,在孔子思想的早期翻译者当中,有博学的天主教学者和神父,以及虔诚的新教传教士。他们认为,孔子孜孜以求的东西,是只有基督启示才能够带来的果实。在西方,《论语》最初可能是被当做近似基督伦理箴言的东西来阅读的,或者由于预示了基督教神学,孔子因此被发现是值得尊崇的。与其说在翻译中这种解读常常受到支持,毋宁说它更为恰当地适应了当时的目的(注:
  赫伯特&S226;芬格莱特:《孔子:即凡而圣》,彭国翔等译,江苏人民出版社,2002年,序言。
  )。无论如何,当初,西方人是以其本能的或直觉的方式来解读《论语》的,而且还不自觉地受到了用基督教术语、用欧洲思想的术语来思维的束缚。如把“天 ”、“道”、“命”、“上帝”、“圣人”、“小人”分别翻译成Heaven、the way、fate、God、Saint、sinner,就把“造物主、灵魂、原罪、天国、来世”等基督-耶稣意象强加到中国文化里。在诠释孔子核心概念“ 仁”时,将原本限于人事、人际多重含义的“仁”,既减少其丰富内涵又增添其神学信条内容,只选定“爱”以与天主教的“爱”(Agape,爱筵,上帝对人之爱)相类比,进而推演出“爱天主”为“仁”之至。孔子的仁主要是指一种道德情感,而利玛窦则将其改造为人对天主的宗教情感。将“孝、忠、敬”三种道德与宗教情感加上天主教宗教情感涵义,说它们只有在圣人那里才能得到完美的统一;并进而诠释孔子的“敬鬼神而远之”,说明孔子不仅认定有鬼神,而且还认定鬼神听命于天主,故敬畏与爱都是人对天主的两种基本情感,将之演绎成为天主教徒的道德情操说。Jane Leonard发现,新教传教士麦都(Walter H. Medhurst)和米怜(William Milne)等人还改写《三字经》以加入基督教内容。哈佛-燕京图书馆收藏了很多基督教版本的《三字经》,里面都加入了上帝、耶稣、伊甸园、天堂和地狱等《圣经》故事;孔子的《论语》同样被他们篡改,以传播基督教的福音信息(注:Jane K Leonard. W. H Medhurst: Rewriting the Missionary Message. Suzanne W. Barnett and John K. F. Christianity in China: Early Protestant Missionary Writings. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985, p.56.)。
  
  5.结语
  传教士们翻译《论语》及其它儒家经典,主要是以宗教为取向,以基督教为评判标准的,是基督教优越论和西方文化中心主义的反映。为了证明基督教在中国典籍中早已存在的事实,他们极力在儒教和基督教之间寻找共同点,用耶稣基督的教义来诠释孔子的思想,倡导孔子伦理与基督教义相符。他们的最终目的是为了使基督教更快更彻底地征服中国,使中国早日“福音化”。所以在翻译中出现了很多歪曲、挪用、篡改和附会情况。但是,儒经翻译也有其重要的正面影响。由传教士介绍到欧洲的中国文化,导致了十七、十八世纪的欧洲产生了一股“中国热”。孔子文献中反映出的儒家思想及其自然观、道德观和政治观,曾经对启蒙运动、法国大革命和德国哲学革命起过相当重要的作用,影响了一代又一代欧洲思想家。传教士对中国文化的研究和推介,同样在十九世纪的欧美政治、思想和文化界引起巨大反响。传教士们充当了东西文化交流的重要角色,他们在“东学西传”和“西学东渐”过程中所作出的贡献值得肯定。
  作者单位:南开大学外国语学院
标签: 哲学思辨 进入哲学思辨吧

2008年9月13日 星期六

利玛窦的《天主实义》

【韩】宋荣培

可以说,利玛窦的《天主实义》(1603年北京)是东西思想互相适应而成的杰作。根据利玛窦的说法,基督教所追求的道理也是儒家之伦理理想:“仁义”而已。但内容上,他所述的“仁”是人类对天主的爱。其说明方式更是积极适应于儒家文化的基本观念。然而,利玛窦批判宋明理学,而引起若干难题如下:1)强调精神与肉体分立的二元论,使人人追求属“神性 ”的灵魂之永久幸福,因而明显地否定在现世的人生价值;2)在利玛窦看来,理只不过是附属于万物(即自立者)的“依赖者”而已。所以,理(依赖者)不能成为自立者(万物)之元。3)按照宋明儒学之说法,道德修养是纯属于道德的问题。虽然利玛窦也强调以自由意志进修“习善”的功夫,他的修养功夫毕竟非与上帝身后的奖罚结合不可。因而这种态度被儒学视为非以成就道德为目的的一种功利论而受到排斥。因此,笔者认为:从一面看《天主实义》是个基督教适应于儒家文化之明显的表现,但从另一面看它是个否定宋明理学之明显的批判。

一、导论:耶稣会之适应当地文化的宣教政策和利玛窦《天主实义》之产生

就东西哲学思想之交流来说,笔者认为利玛窦(Matteo Ricci 1552——1610)的《天主实义》具有两种意义:

(1)它是中国传统时代里第一个系统地介绍西方哲学思想的专著;

(2)它的说明方式非常适应于儒家文化之基本观念,发挥了在东亚儒家文化圈子里令人注目的影响力。[1]

《天主实义》可以说是由东西思想文化互相适应而成的杰作。这一文化适应主义路线原是沙勿略(St. Francisco Xavier l506——1552)所开拓的。他早在1549年抵达日本鹿儿岛之后,在传教方面有相当的成就,但却有个问题时常困惑着他:

“天主教道理不可能为真理。如果它是真理,中国人决不可能至今全无所知。”[2]

沙勿略认识到在属于高级文化地区如日本中国的传教事业需要具备博大的学问和高尚人格的传教士。他过世25年之后,范礼安(Alessandro Valignano 1538——1606)当了巡按使,继承沙勿略的文化适应主义路线。罗明坚(Michele Ruggieri 1543——1607)和利玛窦开始在中国居住并传教(1583.9.10,在广东省肇庆)。起初他们以在日本传教之经验为根据,模仿佛教说法,称自己为 “西僧”,教堂名为“仙化寺”。1584年出版的第一部“汉文天主教教理书”《新编西竺国天主实录》(1584年11月刊行)。“其书富有佛家语,不为士人所喜,……为纯教理之行,文理不甚清顺,名辞常多牵强附会,且于儒家思想不能引证。”[3]

利玛窦到中国之后,一方面认真地学习儒教经典,另一方面通过他在西洋所学到的知识(如制作世界地图以及天体仪的科学技术,有关数学和天文学的知识等等)积极地与中国文人交流。1594年11月他结束了《四书》之拉丁文翻译,而继续钻研《六经》。为了证明天主教教理中极重要的概念(如上帝的存有,灵魂不灭,天堂和地狱之存在等等),利玛窦从中国古典经传里查询到相关的观念,一直到1595年底掌握到了相当的资料。[4]林东阳说:从1596年10月开始写了天主实义之一部分,随之草稿流传于一些文人之间,但整个草稿一直到了1603年8月才完成。[5]

冯应京(1555——1606)和李之藻(1565——1630)曾先后给《天主实义》作序。而且他们在序里以儒学的观点来判定它并没有与儒学矛盾,因而给予积极的评价:

“ 天主实义,大西国利子及其乡会友与吾中国人问答之词也。天主何?上帝也。实云者,不空也。……是书也,历引吾六经之语,以证其实而深诋谈空之误,以西政西,以中化中。……乃乾父之为公,又明甚。……语性则人大异于禽兽,语学则归于为仁,而始于去欲。时亦或有吾国之素所未闻,而所尝闻而未用力者,十居九矣!”[6]

“昔吾夫子语修身也。先事亲,而推及乎知天。至孟氏存养事天之论,而义乃綦备。盖即知即事,事天事亲同一事,而天其事之大原也。……尝读其书,往往不类近儒,而与上古素问,周髀,考工,漆园,诸编默相勘印,顾粹然不诡于正。正其检身事心,严翼匪懈,则世所谓皋比而儒者,未之或先……信哉!东海西海,心同理同。不同者,特言语文字之际……以为闻所未闻,诚谓其戴皇天,而钦崇要义。或亦有习闻,而未之用力者,于是省焉,而存心养性之学,当不无裨益云尔。”[7]

二、《天主实义》之内容

一篇:按照托玛斯·阿奎纳之说法,利玛窦解释天主之存有,并从中国古书(如《诗》、《书》、《易经》)引用有关人格神的文句,而说天主即古代中国人所崇拜的“上帝”或“天”。

二篇:把佛道之空无看成纯无,否定它们。将物类分为两者:自立体(自立者)和依赖体(依赖者)。太极,即理也。理“或在人心,或在事物”(上卷,第二篇,页 16上)。理不能脱离“心”或“物”。因此,决不是独立存在的“自立者”(自立体)。太极只不过是“依赖者”(依赖体)。所以,太极不能成为“万物之原 ”。

三篇:借用亚里士多德之三魂说,植物之生魂和动物之觉魂是属于物质(形)的,所以,这二魂必须是死后与物质(形)一起消灭的。但人类之灵魂是无形的灵魂。它不是与禽兽一样可消亡,而是永远不灭的。

四篇:首先将与肉体结合的人类之灵魂和没有肉体的鬼神分别为二。然后,引用中国古书(诗、书、易),证明中国古人也相信过“人魂死后为不散泯”之说(上卷,第四篇,页38下)。还有,激烈地否定儒家传统思想所谓“内心即上帝”之说。最后,对于中国人不分天主(即创造主)与万物(被创造物)之间的区别,因而说 “万物一体”的观点。利玛窦也把它否定。

五篇:把佛教所讲的“前生”与“轮回”说否定,并批判佛教之“杀生戒”。同时说明基督教“斋戒”之真意。

六篇:利玛窦将人类定义为具有灵才的存在物。灵才具有“意志”(rational appetite 即will,意),而由“自由意志”的选择(“纵止其意”,下卷,第六篇,页18下)才成立人类行为的“善恶德慝”之区分。(“善恶德慝,俱由意之正邪 ”,下卷,第六篇,页17上)。还有,天主必须按照个人之善行如何,判定其赏罚。由此,利玛窦要引证“天堂与地狱之存在的必然性”。

七篇:关于人格的修养,利玛窦区分“性善”和“习善”。中国人所说的“性善”只不过是“良善”,即天主所赋与的本性而已。但人类是具有“自由意志”,可作善,又可作恶。性善不能保证人类善行之必然性。所以,人类必须有以“意志”择善,而成德之“习善”过程。他说:“性之善为良善;德之善为习善。失良善者,天主原化性命之德,而我无功焉。我所谓功,止在自习积德之善也。”(下卷,第七篇页40上)。所以,他鼓励习善而成德。而且成德时人类必遵行向天主祈祷,痛悔和作礼拜的必要性。

八篇:说明耶稣会士独身之理由,并敷衍天主(基督)降生救援人类的故事以及通过痛悔和水洗成为天主徒之入教形式。

笔者认为《天主实义》之特征在于:不讲启示神学之内容,而一方面按照阿奎纳的道理,另一方面从中国经典自由自在地引用恰当的句子来说明天主教的道理。如此,讲道理似有相当的说服力量。

三、解读《天主实义》必需先了解阿奎纳哲学的基本概念

1、四因说:

阿奎纳基本上继承了亚里士多德之形上学。如众所知,为了解释事物存在之故,他们提出了“四因说”。他们两者都确信:存在于现象世界的各个物体的“普遍性”或者“不变性”(就是它们物体的“存在原理”,或“模式”)只能存在于它们各个物体之内部,而不是超越它们之外在者。所以,每个物体在它自己内部里,不但具有造成自己时所必要的物质料(即matter质料),而且保存着它们自己的存在模式(即form,形式)。因此,对宋明理学所讲的“理”,利玛窦把它看成是附属于物体的“依赖者”(依赖体Accidents)。依他看,理不可能是个脱离物体而独立地存在的“自立者”(自立体Substances)。

在宇宙上由“质料因”与“形式因”所构成的整个物体,无论有生的或无生的,按照欧洲中世纪的自然观说法,都是——有意识地或无意识地——为了实现超越各个物体之外的“终极的目的”(即上帝的意志),而不断地运动着的东西。根据这样的目的论的世界观,阿奎纳说明日月星辰在天上的运动,由重力作用所引起的“万有引力现象”以及植物之向光性等等的自然变化现象。因此,引导某物体的动力因(“作者”efficient cause)和决定其运动动机的目的因(“为者”final cause)存在于超越各个物体之外的“特殊存有物”。依阿奎纳看,这特殊存有物就是天主。

2.阿奎纳之天主证明:

依照事物之因果关系以及目的论的世界观,阿奎纳试图在他的大作《神学大全》里证明上帝的存在:

(1) 事物(A)之运动是由别事物(B)运动之结果所引起的。否则,别事物(B)运动就是事物(A)之运动所引起的。换句话说,A就是B之结果,或者是B之原因,而不能同时为他物(B)和自己本身(A)之运动原因者。为了证明万有之存在,我们不得不设定最原初的运动者。它的存在并没有任何运动之结果,而只是所有运动之原因者,这就是上帝。

(2)就万有之现在的结果来看,我们可以设想时间上最原初的运动者,它就是上帝。

(3)就各个物体来说,现象界的所有事物一方面是生成着,另一方面是消灭着。它们只有存在的偶然性,而并没有存在的“必然性”。如此,具有存在的“必然性的存有”就是上帝。

(4)从真善美的角度来看,个个物体是不完全的。因此,它们必需要有特殊完全者引导它们朝向一个真善美完整的方向,这特殊完全者就是上帝。

(5)无论有生命的或者无生命的物体,它们虽然没有灵性,而可以作出合乎理性的行为。换句话说,没有灵性的物体是被有灵性的存在者引导着。这具有灵性而引导无灵性的存在者就是上帝。[8]

我们由此知道利玛窦特别借用阿奎纳论证之第1,2,5项在《天主实义》第一篇里证明天主之存在。

3.灵魂论:

按照亚里士多德和阿奎纳之说法,魂就是分别生物与无生物的基准,即“生命之第一原理”。[9]“植物有生魂”,禽兽有“生魂”与“觉魂”。人类不但有生魂与觉魂,而且具有“灵魂”。灵魂意谓辨别是非善恶的推理能力。

生魂和觉魂之作用离不开有形的身体。所以,它们是死后与肉体一起消灭的。不过,灵魂之推理能力(灵才)脱离肉体以发挥作用(“脱形而神之”,上卷,页31上)。所以,人类之小小的心里可容纳整个宇宙。

人虽然是灵魂和肉体结合的存在,他的灵魂决不是被肉体束缚的。它是“有精神”(“神”spirit)的,可以了解“神”,即上帝的本性。灵魂是“脱形而神之 ”,故永远不能消灭的。依阿奎纳说,天主模仿自己的“无形的精神性”,而将它作为人的本性,因此,启发人的这种“无形的精神性”(即神性),以完善它,就是人人所要追求的最高的善。[10]

四、儒教伦理之改造和基督教之伦理理想

依阿奎纳的看法,人的“意志”之动用应该在于实现合乎道德的善行。因此,利玛窦向中国文人讲述道理如下:

“ 司明(reason即理性)之大功在义;司爱(will即意志)之大本在仁。故君子以仁义为重焉。二者相须,一不可废。然!惟司明者明仁之善,而后司爱者爱而存之。司爱者爱义之德,而后司明者察而求之。但仁也者,又为义之至精。仁盛则司明者滋明。故君子之学,又以仁为主焉。”[11]

如上所见,基督教所追求的道理就是中国文人(即君子)所追求的伦理理想:“仁义”而已。那么,利玛窦所谓的“仁”的含意是什么?

“夫德之品众矣。不能具论。吾今为子惟揭其纲,则仁其要焉。得其纲,则余者随之。故《易》云:‘元者善之长。君子体仁,足以长人。’(周易,乾卦,文言)夫仁之说可约,而以三言穷之。

曰:‘爱天主!为天主无以尚。而为天主者,爱人如己也!’行斯二者,百行全备矣。然,二亦一而已。笃爱一人,则并爱其所爱者矣。天主爱人,吾真爱天主者,有不爱人者乎?”[12]

由上可知,利玛窦所讲的“仁”就是人类对上帝的受,换句话说,基督教所讲的爱是通过对天主的爱以实现的,然后,利玛窦说明基督教要实现的爱如下:“爱天主之效,莫诚乎爱人也。所谓仁者爱人。不爱人,何以验其诚敬上帝欤?爱人,非虚爱。必将渠饥则食之,渴则饮之,无衣则衣之,无屋则舍之,忧患则恤之慰之,愚蒙则诲之,罪过则谏之,侮我则恕之!既死则葬之,而为代祈上帝!且死生不敢忘之!”[13]

中国文人在听到这样博大又深厚的基督教伦理的道理之后,他们也开始对天主教理感到兴趣了!

五、利玛窦批判宋明理学所引起的难题

利玛窦所诠释的天主教理一面接近于儒教伦理,而带来了不少新鲜的观念。但是,从另一个角度来看,又抨击了宋明理学之主要观念。因此,笔者认为利玛窦的解释在哲学观念上产生了几个难题或困境。

(1)强调极端的二元论,而轻视在现世的人生价值:

依利玛窦的解释,人类是由肉体(形)和精神(神)所结合的生命体。不过,人的本性在于“神性”,因而过分地夸张精神与物质二元论,使人人崇尚追求来世灵魂之永久幸福。其结果明显地否定在现世的人生价值,

“现世者,吾所侨寓,非长久居也。吾本家室,不在今世,在后世;不在人,在天;当 于彼创本业焉!今世也,禽兽之世也。故鸟兽各类之像,俯向于地。人为天民,则昂首向顺于天。以今世为本处所者,禽兽之徒也。以天主为薄于人,固无怪耳!”[14]

(2)把物之宗品分为“自立者”(自立体)与“依赖者”(依赖体),否定太极(即理)为万物之原:——理就是附属于“心”或“物”之依赖体之主张——利玛窦反驳“理”(即太极)为“天地万物之原”的说法如下:

“ 若太极者,止解之以所谓理,则不能为天地万物之原矣,盖理亦依赖之类,自不能立。曷立他物哉?中国文人学士讲论理者,只谓有二端,或在人心,或在事物。事物之情,合乎人心之理,则事物方谓真实焉。人心能穷彼在物之理,而尽其知,则谓之格物焉。据此两端,则理固依赖,奚得为物原乎?二者,皆物后,而后岂先者之原?且其初无一物之先,渠言必有理存焉。大理在何处?依属何物乎?依赖之情,不能自立。故无自立者,以为之托,则依赖者了无矣。如曰赖空虚耳,恐空虚非足赖者,理将不免于偃坠也。试问:盘古之前,既有理在,何故闲空不动而生物乎?其后谁从激之使动?况理本无动静。况自动乎?如曰昔不生物,后乃愿生物,则理岂有意乎?何以有欲生物,有欲不生物乎?”[15]

依笔者来看,毫无疑问利玛窦是将“理”看成在各个物体内的“形式因”。所以,他说理只不过是附属于事物(自立体)的“依赖体”而已。利玛窦对“理”的这种看法(或者“误解”)是依据亚里士多德之“四因说”而来的。因此,我们一定要注意到这种“误解”的来源就是与中国纯然不同的西方形上学之基本结构。归根究底,依四因说的根本假设来看,宇宙(世界Welt)是个“无魂无知觉”(上卷,第一篇,页3下)的物体。换句话说,世界就是无生命的物体。它无法主动地使自己引动而变化自己,除非超越它自己的外在者引导它。所以,使它运动的“动力因”(即efficient cause作者)以及规定其运动之目标的“目的因”(即final cause 为者)决不可能在它本身之内,而是由超越它的外在者,就是上帝的意志。因此,创造世界万物的上帝与被它创造的万物是绝然不同的品类,绝不可以把这两类混为一谈。

不过,依儒家传统想法来说,宇宙就是个“生生不息”的活体。所以说:

“天地之大德曰:生”(易,系辞下)

“元,亨,利,贞”。(易,乾卦)

“天行健,君子以自强不息”(易,乾卦)

“大哉乾元!万物资始,乾道变化,各正性命,保合太和,乃利贞。”(易,乾彖)

“诗云:‘维天之命,于穆不已。’盖曰:天之所以为天。”(中庸)

“诚则形,形则著,著则明,明则动,动则变,变则化,唯天下至诚为能化。”(中庸)

“天命不已”,“生生不息”……

天地万物既然是“生生不息”的活体,为了使动自己,它并不需要外来的动力因,就是超越者(上帝)的“按排”或“关怀”。不过,假如我们借来亚里士多德之“四因说”比附宋明理学所讲的“理”的话,它的确是很像亚里士多德所讲的“形式因”之道理。但笔者认为“理”不只是形式因。而且对现象世界存在的各个物体来说,“理”不仅是它们的“动力因”,而同时也是“规定其运动意义”的目的因。[16]

朱熹说:

“至于天下之物,则必各有所以然之故,与所当然之则,所谓理也。”(大学或问,经文);

“使于身心性情之德,人伦日用之常,以至天地鬼神之变,鸟兽草木之宜。自其一物之中,莫不有以见其当然而不容已,与其所以然以不可易者。”(大学或问,第五章)

“ 宇宙之间,一理而已。天得之而为天,地得之而为地。而凡生于天地之间者,又各得之以为性。其张之为三纲,其纪之为五常,盖皆此理之流行,无所适不在。若其消息盈虚,循环不已,则未始有物之前,以至人消物尽之后,终则复始,始复有终,又未尝有顷刻之或停也。”(读大纪,朱子文集,七十)

“然以意度之,则疑此气是依傍这理行。及此气之聚,则理亦在焉。”(语类,一)

依以上来看,“理”是宋明理学(道德形上学)的基本因素。它可以在各个事物里面存在着。不过,理就是使它们成为自己存在的“所以然之故”兼“所当然之则 ”(即形式因兼目的因),并且是使它们引动自己而发展自己的生命力量(即动力因)。因此,中国文人不能设想超越各个事物的动力因。所以,笔者认为他们难以接受利玛窦根据四因说对“理”所诠释的——理即“依赖体”的——道理。

(3)儒教的义理论(道德理想主义)与利玛窦的功利之辩:

宋明理学是以天理为基础的道德形上学。各个事物在自己里头都保存着它们各自本身的天理(即性)。就宋明道德形上学之原则来说,万有都是尽善尽美的。不过,人与物在现实世界出现时必须带着组成它们的物质力量,就是气。因此,纯理在现实上都是多多少少被气阻隔起来了。但重点是如何将被遮盖的理复原,这就是道德付之实践与否之问题。因而鼓励使人人“存天理减私欲”。人人所追求的人生至高目标为除去私欲而复原元性,就是“复性”而已。人人是否决心“复性”纯然属于道德实践之问题。这绝不可能迁就功利(利害)之关系。所以,中国文人不能同意以天主之赏罚来鼓励人格完善之道理,因而中国文人(中士)说:

“以天堂地狱为言,恐未惑天主之教也。夫因趋利避害之故,为善禁恶,是乃善利恶害,非善善恶恶正志也。吾古圣贤教世,弗言利。惟言仁义耳!君子为善,‘无意’。况有利害之意耶?”[17]

然而利玛窦判断行为善否的准则完全地属于人类由其所天赋的自由意志来选择善行与否之问题,因而他说:

“ 凡世物既有其意(sic!利玛窦意谓‘意志’will),又有能纵止其意者,然后有德有惠,有善有恶焉。意者,心之发也。金石草木无心,则无意,故镆铘伤人,复仇者,不折镆铘。飘瓦损人,首伎心者,不怒飘瓦。然!镆铘裁断,无与其功者。瓦蔽风雨,民无酬谢。所为,无心无意。是以,元德无慝,无善无恶,而无可以赏罚之。若禽兽者,可谓有禽兽之心与意矣。但无灵心(sic! rational intelligence)以辩可否。随所感触,任意速发,不能以理为之,节制其所为。是礼非礼,不但不得已,且亦不自知,有何善恶之可论乎?……惟人不然。行事在外,理心在内。是非当否,兼能知觉,兼能纵止,虽有兽心之欲,若能理心为主,兽心岂能违我主心之命?故吾发意从理,即为德行君子。天主佑之。吾溺意兽心,即为犯罪小人。天主且弃之矣。……则意为善恶之原,明著矣!……世俗大权重名声之利害,而轻身财之损益。故谓:‘春秋成,而乱臣贼子俱。’乱臣贼子,奚惧焉?非惧恶名之为害不已乎?孟轲首以仁义为题。厥后每会时君,劝行仁政,犹以‘不王者未之有也’为结语。王天下,顾非利哉?人孰不悦利于朋友,利于亲戚?如利不可经心,则何以欲归之友亲乎?仁之方,曰:‘不欲诸己,勿可诸人!’既不宜望利以为已,犹必当广利以为人?以是知利无所伤于德也。利所以不可言者,乃其伪,乃其悖义者耳。《易》曰:‘利者,义之和也。’又曰:‘利用安身,以崇德也。’……重来世之益者,必轻现世之利。轻现世之利,而好犯上,争夺,弑父,弑君,未之闻也。便民皆望后世之利,为政何有?”[18]

不过,明末文人龚大参(原名G龚道立)在利玛窦所著《畸人十编》里却不欣赏利玛窦所讲的天主身后赏罚之功利论。他强调人人之良心判断,鼓励他们在现世上完善道德。他向利玛窦提出意见如下:

(龚) 大参曰:“子论人之报。人善恶苦乐,眇小,不能相称。眇小之中,又有法律所不能穷究者,是则然矣。然人与法律所不暨者,吾方寸中具有心君,觉是觉非,切报之。则报仍在已在今,不俟身后也。仁人有天堂,即本心。是心真为安土为乐地,自然快足,自然欣赏矣。汝若办一德心,即增福禄一品。备全德,即备全福乐。故谓仁者集神乐大成也。

慝生于心,心即苦海。罪创于内。百千殃械,应时肆陈,则慝自廉自罚矣。吾犯一戒,自招一孽子。放恣无法,则是地狱重刑也。何者?吾既违天命,即吾自羞耻心,告讦证我,我胡得辞乎?即我自喘惧心,枉桔囚我,我胡能遁乎?自性天理审判,按我罪我。我可以贿赂脱乎?可望主者慈宥乎?则哀痛悔惨,种种诸情,四向内攻,殃毒无方,我何能避哉?

朦人者,不得朦己。逃人者,不得逃己。故曰:逢艰患,贤不肖,无大异,盖苦乐均也。则请无睹其肤,视其脏矣。请无睹其面,视其心矣。君子不因外患改其乐,小人不据外荣辍其忧也。若然,德慝之偿,在身内,不由身外。岂不信夫?”[19]

六、结论:东西方哲学思想之对话

如上所示,在《天主实义》里所探讨的若干哲学问题毕竟牵涉到东西方的形上学之根本差异。利玛窦明知这些差别。所以,他从一面根据亚里士多德之形上学的和阿奎纳的神学观批判宋明理学。换句话说,利玛窦坚决地否定一种以太极(理)为基础的道德形上学。不过,笔者认为对西方形上学全无所了解的中国文人也难以理解利玛窦以之激烈地排斥宋明理学的哲学基础,因为他们只能接受他们自己所习惯的宋明哲学观点,而把它看做为真的。利玛窦根据西方的哲学观念来批判宋明理学的形上学,笔者认为大部分的中国文人不会接受的。

不过,他从另一面肯定儒家伦理。他接受儒家伦理所强调的个人的道德启发之重要性,因而比附儒家伦理,以说明基督教伦理也是归于行“仁义”。而且利玛窦从儒家经传里找出“上帝”或“天”之概念,而说基督教所讲的“Deus”就是中国古代人所祭祀的“上帝”或“天”。因此,他开拓了所谓适应于儒教文化的基督教本土化之第一步。笔者认为在这一点上利玛窦作出莫大的贡献。

众所周知,按照宋明理学的世界观,要点是如何培养存在于内心的“良知” 之判断力,或者,如何发扬由良知所悟到的“天理”。因而,宋明理学的特征在于强调人人启发自己的良知良能,而鼓励人人刻苦地修养道德,趋于完善。人本主义的道德论如此明显地刻印在宋明儒学。以这样的人本主义的道德论的观点视基督教的上帝,它不可能离开“人人内心之良心”而存在的。因此,在《天主实义》里出现的中国文人(中士)所强调的东西——几乎可与超越的上帝相对比——不外是人人内心之良知良能。以他们来看,基督教所讲的上帝只不过是“内心的上帝 ”[20]而已。

“上帝之德,固厚,而吾人亦具有至德。上帝固具无量能,而吾人心亦能应万事。试观先圣,调元开物,主教明伦。养民以耕凿机杼,利民以舟车财货。其肇基经世,垂万世不易之鸿猷,而天下永赖以安。未闻蔑先圣,而上帝自作自树,以臻至治。由是论之,人之德能,虽上帝罔或逾焉。讵云韧造天地,独天主能乎!世不达己心之妙……是心无远不逮,无高不升,无广不括,无细不入,无坚不度。故具识根者,宜知方寸之间俨若天主。非天主,宁如是耶?”[21]

如上所示,按照以天理作为道德形上学之基础的宋明理学的观点,上帝如离开人人之良心省察,它绝不可能由别的方式存在。对信从宋明理学的中国文人来说,上帝不是超越自己的外在的绝对者,而是潜在于各个物体(包含各个人)的天理本身而已。就人类来说,他们之良心就是上帝。

与此相反,按照基督教的道理,上帝是个超越现实世界的,是主宰和监视此现世的超越者。世界之万物万相,都是上帝按照自己的意图创造的。因此,世界万物万相是本质上随着它的意志生成发展,并向完成它设定的最终目的运动着的而已。因此,我们可以说基督教教理的本质便在于追求超现世的上帝所设定的最终目的。在自奥古斯丁(354——430)以来的基督教传统里面,许多神学家们毕竟透过人类之良心而找出证明上帝存在的证据。利玛窦也是从人类之良心摸索着天主之存在的证明:

“予谓天下莫著明乎是也。人谁不仰目观天,观天之际,谁不默自叹,曰:斯其中必有立之者哉!……吾不待学之能,为良能也。今天下万国,各有自然之诚情,莫相告谕,皆敬一上尊。被难者,吁哀望救,如望慈父母焉。”[22]

如上所示,人间之良知良能就是基督教和儒教的思维之共同出发点。因此,笔者认为开拓基管教和儒教之间的更有深度的对话的新地平线就应该探索人的良知良能。

注释:

[1]《天主实义》自17世纪以来有蒙、满、朝鲜、越南、日文之翻译本。

[2]Hans Haas,Geschichte des Christentums in Japan, 1. Bd. ,S.22l; Rene Laurentin, Chine et Christianisme, P115.

[3]林东阳,“有关利玛窦所著天主实义与畸人十编的几个问题”,大陆杂志,第56卷第1期,第36页。

[4]D. Lancashire & Hu Kuo-chen(tr.), The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven, Pl5.胡国桢,简介《天主实义》,《神学论集》,56号,第256页。

[5]林东阳,同上,第39页。

[6]冯应京:《天主实义》,北京,1601。

[7]李之藻:《天主实义重刻序》,杭州,1607。

[8]有关阿奎纳之天主证明的叙述,笔者参照,John F. Wippel, Metaphysics, Aquinas, Kretzmann/Stump(ed.),第

113——116页。

[9]Anthony Kenny,Aquinas On Mind,P45.

[10] Ralph Malnerny, "Ethics",Aquinas,ibid.,P200.

[11]《天主实义>,下卷,第七篇,页43上/下;请注意:以下引用《天主实义》时,只写明卷,篇及页数。

[12]下卷,第七篇,页46上/下。

[13]下卷,第七篇,页48下。

[14]上卷,第三篇,第26页下。

[15]上卷,第二篇,第16页上/下。

[16]参看,牟宗三,“四因说”演讲录,鹅湖月刊,第20卷,第三期(总号第231),页5“照亚里士多德四因说,静态的分析就是质料,形式两面。质料因是一面,动力因,目的因,形式因这三因又是一面,是同属于理的一面。”

[17]下卷,第六篇,第16页下。

[18]下卷,第六篇,第18页下——22页下。

[19]《畸人十编》卷下,第八篇,第224——226页,《天学初函》(一),台北,学生书局影印本,1965。

[20]“其性一体,则曰天主上帝,即在各物之内,而与物为一。故劝人勿为恶而玷己之本善焉,勿违义以犯己之本理焉,勿害物以侮其内心之上帝焉。”(上卷,第四篇,第46页下——47页上)。

康熙全面禁教

雍正對天主教的態度

  本文曾在第二章提及,天主教在清初時期受到清廷一定程度的開放,爾後卻因與羅馬教廷的「禮儀之爭」,而導致康熙全面禁教之事。[1]

  天主教自明末利瑪竇傳入中國至今,大約可分為三個階段──自開始到康熙末年下禁教令為第一期,約一百三、四十年,也是開創期。可惜好景不長,到了康熙末年,因教會內部對中國禮儀起了爭端,即對祀孔、祭祖和使用「天」和「上帝」的名稱是否屬於異端的問題。康熙帝與羅馬教宗之間的「禮儀之爭」(或稱「教儀之爭」)[2] 愈演愈烈,羅馬教宗更下令禁止中國教民祭祖、祭孔,這一涉及中國禮俗的行動導致了康熙下諭禁傳天主教,由此也開始了第二階段,即是禁教期。接著雍正、乾隆、嘉慶、直到道光,相繼重申禁教令,天主教的傳播完全處於地下活動狀態,直到鴉片戰爭解除教禁為止,這一時期也約有一百三、四十年。此後,自道光末年開禁至今為第三期,這一階段可稱為天主教復興發展期。[3]

  本文主要探討雍正對天主教的態度,有關雍正禁止天主教一事,究竟是純粹繼承康熙的禁教令,還是另有政治因素存在,這也是許多論及天主教教難的相關論著中都會提及的。有說「雍正一朝,對教友總沒有向康熙那樣和善優容過,因此更加敵視教會。」[4] 尤其是雍正對同為宗室的蘇努一家因信奉天主教而受到的嚴重殘害,更是彰顯雍正對天主教的厭惡態度。但蘇努一族,除了信奉天主教,嚴重的違反《大清律》中「旗人不得信教」的律例外,又因蘇努曾助皇八子允祀(或作示異)謀取帝位,更為雍正所忌恨。兩種因素追根究底都與政治、權勢有關。

  在天主教的相關書籍多以傳教士捲入清朝宮廷儲位鬥爭為雍正禁教的主要原因。首先略述在雍正年間,蘇努一族因信奉天主教的下場,繼而探討雍正對天主教的態度。

  在康熙末年,皇太子允礽復廢之際,康熙的諸皇子各自攘奪儲位,謀取太子,各樹黨羽。其中第九皇子允示唐和第八皇子允祀(或作示異);前者對天主教有好感,有葡籍教士穆敬遠與之來往親密;後者受到了信天主教的貝勒蘇努和他兒子們的擁護。有說「因此雍正登基以後,立即對他們進行殘酷的鎮壓。他的皇兄皇弟,五人死在獄中,穆敬遠神父被絞死(或說毒死),蘇努全家被發配到西寧。因為這事牽扯到教士和教友,所以雍正對天主教抱著懷疑和憎恨的態度。」[5]

  蘇努是清太祖努爾哈赤的四世孫,與雍正是從昆弟行,頗受康熙的信任,前後作過纂修玉牒的總裁官,以輔國公、鎮國公任都統,治領八旗滿洲蒙古全軍、奉天將軍等,可謂功在朝廷。蘇努有子十三人,全家大小共七十四口,都先後入天主教,並且極其虔誠。在蘇努諸子中,最虔誠熱心的是第六子勒什亨和第十二子烏爾陳,結果二人在雍正元年二月初十,一同被發往西寧充軍;爾後在雍正二年五月,雍正將蘇努一族男女老幼七十四口和僕婢三百多人全發往塞外右衛。蘇努不久就死在右衛,雍正又差官吏往右衛把他的子孫等人,鎖拿到京,遞去黃帶子,除去宗室名,將為庶人,然後再發往右衛。到了雍正四年正月,將允示唐(或作神)、允祀(或作示異),以及蘇努等人削去宗籍;五月又依大逆罪將蘇努戳屍揚灰,抄沒家產。[6]

  雍正將蘇努全家治罪的原因,在天主教的相關論著中則多認為:「第一是據稱蘇努及其子曾幫助允祀謀取帝位,為雍正所忌恨。第二是因蘇努一家都虔信天主教,又為雍正所深惡痛絕。」[7] 撇開謀取儲位的政治因素不說,雍正真的如此厭惡天主教嗎?

  雖然雍正對天主教的禁教令基本上是繼承前朝政策,但在後來也稍有變動。其實康熙末年禁止天主教的法令實行並不徹底,雍正元年(1723年),浙江總督覺羅滿保重新提出查禁的建議,請奏將通曉技藝又願赴京效力的送到北京,其餘一律送到澳門安插。雍正同意他的要求,指令地方官做好西洋人的遷移澳門事務,勿使其勞苦。爾後,雍正又同意不必盡送澳門,可在廣州等候該國船來搭乘回國,其中老弱不願去的,令其居住於廣州天主堂內,但不許出外傳教。同年十二月,經禮部議准,並將其它地方的天主堂一律改為公所,入教的民人令他們放棄信仰。雍正還說「朕於西洋教法,原無深惡痛絕之處,但念於我中國聖人之道,無甚裨益,不過聊從眾議耳。爾其詳加酌量,若果無害,則異域遠人自應一切從寬。爾或不達朕意,繩之過嚴,則又不是矣。特諭。」[8]

  所以,西洋人只要沒有大惡,應從寬對待,不要繩之過嚴。因此,雍正禁止天主教傳教,用意是在不許中國人傳教,尤其不准滿人崇信。雖然蘇努因是允祀黨羽而遭到打擊,但雍正也多次指責他那些信教的兒子背祖宗、違朝廷的罪過。[9] 浙江巡撫李衛在上奏地方上信教情形時,還特地說明「駐防旗下亦染此風」。他們君臣怕人民信奉天主教後,而違背儒家的綱常大義。[10]

  雍正和康熙一樣禁止西洋人傳教,把他們驅逐到澳門,或集中於廣州,以防範他們深入民間,影響民眾思想。但雍正在驅逐時,強調做好護送工作,且在人身上保證他們的安全,之後又允許居留廣州。這就是雍正最初處理西方宗教的態度,做的有節制,態度還算溫和。不過雍正將各地之傳教士陸續集中到廣州,就算是在康熙年間有領票傳教資格的傳教士也不例外,這一點雍正確實已改變了康熙的作法。

  雍正三年,羅馬教皇派遣使臣朝見雍正,祝賀他的登基。雍正深感滿意,表示對來華的西洋人,只要他們「慎首法度,行止無愆」,一定「推恩撫恤」。同時,在符合釋放的條件下,同意教皇的請求,釋放康熙時期被囚禁的傳教士。因此,綜合上述所言,雍正最初對天主教、西洋人並無惡感,否則雍正也不會頭帶西洋的髮式作畫了。雍正之所以禁止傳教,是因為不許中國人信教,尤其不准滿人崇信,同時也害怕百姓因信仰天主教後,唯聽命教主而違背儒家的鋼常大義。

  到了雍正五年(1727年)一月二十六日,雍正特降旨召見了在北京為清廷服務的二十名傳教士,並設宴進行款待,這是一個不尋常的舉動,尤其在歷經康熙朝的全面禁教之後。受召見的傳教士們感到這「是一次前所未有、異乎尋常的榮譽」。在召見過程中,雍正從傳教士處了解了有關歐洲方面的戰事情況以及天主教和東正教有何不同,並十分讚賞義大利畫家、朗士寧的油畫、巴多明的翻譯以及法國宋君榮繪制的地圖。並且還告訴傳教士們:有人指責天主教不孝敬父母,對此傳教士們也做了解釋。席間,雍正還告訴傳教士們說:葡萄牙使節麥德樂已從廣州動身前來北京。此次會見後,雍正還送給參見會見的傳教士一些禮物。從這件事不難看出,雍正對那些為清廷服務的,遵守中國法度的傳教士態度是友好的,對他們在中國還是歡迎的。

  爾後,當年四月,葡萄牙使節麥德樂到達北京。麥德樂首先會見了在北京的傳教士們。傳教士們向他介紹了清廷關於天主教的政策。麥德樂在得知羅馬教皇寫給雍正的兩封信中所提出的問題,基本上得到了解決的鼓舞下,準備在雍正召見他時,向清政府提出兩項要求:一、歸還各省的天主教堂;二、要求准許天主教在中國自由傳教。當時,有些傳教士勸他不要這樣做,因為這些要求和清廷的政策相違背,而且由他提出也不合適。麥德樂不聽,果真在四月初八,雍正召見他時提出上述兩項要求。雍正聽後很反感,也很生氣,對麥德樂提出的兩項要求,當即做了否定性的答覆。並且當天還發了一道上諭:「中國有中國之教,西洋有西洋之教。西洋之教不必行於中國,亦如中國之教豈能行於西洋?如蘇努之子烏爾陳等愚昧不法,背祖宗,違朝廷,甘蹈刑戮而不恤,豈不怪乎?」[11]

  之後,在北京的傳教士們聽到這一消息,也都對麥德樂的行為感到不滿。麥德樂雖然很後悔,但對於他所造成的麻煩,那些傳教士們也不知該怎麼辦,也不知該如何跟雍正打交道了。不久麥德樂便乘船返回歐洲。之後,雍正對天主教的態度變得更加嚴厲,因而有人說,雍正敲響了天主教在中國的喪鍾。

  麥德樂雖然走了,但他此行中國卻造成對天主教的不良影響。雍正五年六月初一(西元1727年7月21日),雍正在圓明園召見了在北京的許多傳教士,並對他們發表了一次長篇講話,除了向傳教士們講述自己斷然拒絕麥德樂提出的兩項要求外,又著重闡述了清廷有關天主教的政策,從中更反映了雍正本人的宗教觀──這即是本文所欲彰顯的。此書信內容據宋君榮神父致耶穌會蓋雅爾神父的信中,大致內容如下:[12]

朕允許爾等留住京城和廣州,允許爾等從這裡到廣州,又從廣州往歐洲通信,這已足夠了。不是有好多人控告爾等嗎!不過朕了解爾等是好人。倘若是一位比朕修養差的君主,早就將爾等驅逐出境了。麥德樂向朕提出要發執照,好讓朕知道爾等皆是好人,朕不想那樣做。朕會懲罰惡人,會認識誰是好人。但是,朕不需要傳教士,倘若朕派和尚到爾等歐洲各國去,爾等的國王也是不會允許的嘛。

漢明帝任用印度僧人,唐太宗任用西藏喇嘛,這兩位君主因此受到中國人的憎惡。先皇讓爾等在各省建立教堂,亦有損聖譽。對此,朕作為一個滿洲人,曾竭力反對。朕豈能容許這些有損于先皇聲譽的教堂存在?朕豈能幫助爾等引入那種反對中國大道的教義?豈能像他人一樣讓此教義得以推廣?喇嘛教最接近爾等的教,而儒教則與爾等的之教相距甚遠。爾等錯了!爾等人眾不過二十,卻要攻擊其它一切教義。須知爾等所具有的好的東西,中國人的身上也都具有,然爾等也有和中國各種教派一樣的荒唐可笑之處。爾等稱天為天主,其實這是一回事。在回民居住的最小村莊裡,都有一個敬天的「爸爸」(即阿訇──譯者),他們也說他們的教義是最好的。和我們一樣,爾等有十誡,這是好的,可是爾等卻有一個成為人的神(指耶穌──譯者),還有什麼永恆的苦和永恆的樂,這是神話,是再荒唐不過了。

佛教是用來紀念佛以便敬佛的。人們既不是拜人佛,也不是拜木頭偶像。佛教是天,或者用爾等的話說,佛就是天主。難道爾等的天主像不也是爾等自己畫的嗎?如同爾教一樣,佛也有化身,也有轉世,這是荒唐的。難道我們滿洲人在我們的祭祀中所豎立的杆子(指索羅杆子)不如爾等的十字架荒唐嗎?(原文如此──譯者)在儒生、喇嘛、和尚當中都很少有人理解他們那一套教義,就像爾等當中很少有人理解爾等的教義一樣。大多數歐洲人大談什麼天主呀,大談天主無時不在、無所不在呀,大談什麼天堂、地獄呀等等,其實他們也不明白他們所講的究竟是什麼。有誰見過這些?又有誰看不出來這一套只不過是為了欺騙小民的?以後爾等可常來朕前,朕要開導開導爾等。[13]

雖然雍正的這段長篇大論,只能在有限的場合說,但卻也反應出雍正對各種宗教都有基本的認識與熟悉。而且,雍正很有選擇性的吸收,並清楚指出各派教義的問題所在,理信而不迷信,是一個帝王應有的態度。

  雍正之所以禁止天主教傳播,表面上看來有兩個原因:一是天主教教義和中國封建社會的傳統的儒家思想發生了矛盾,而且相距甚遠,這是康熙末年「禮儀之爭」的延續效應。第二是正如雍正所言:「中國有中國之教,西洋人之教不必行於中國。」此外,依筆者推度還有一隱藏原因才是最重要的,也符合雍正身為統治者未雨綢繆的心態,那就是為了防止天主教勢力過大。且看雍正在雍正元年(1723年)十二月底,對在京的傳教士巴多明、馮秉正以及費隱三教士長達一刻鍾的長篇訓示:

(前略)利馬竇於萬曆初年來中國,當時人們的作法與我無關。不過那時你們的人數微不足道,並非各省都有你們的人和教堂。到我父皇朝,你們到處設立教堂,你們的教也迅速傳播。以前我目睹這狀況,但未敢一言。現在你們不要想能像欺騙我父皇一樣地欺騙我。

我知道你們的宗旨是使所有中國人入你們的教。但果真如此,我們將成為一種什麼人?教徒只聽你們的話,一但有事,他們唯你們的命是聽。這一點現在雖不必慮及,但當千舟萬船來我海岸時,必將產生擾亂。

中國北有俄羅斯,不可小看;南有西洋人和他們的國家,也不可小看,西有策妄的阿喇布坦,我要阻止他入內,不使他擾亂中國。沙皇使臣曾請許莫斯科人在各省通商,我已拒絕,只許他們在北京及邊境貿易。現在我准許你們在北京和廣州居住。你們如有怨言,則北京和廣州也不能居住。我不願在各省有你們的人。我父皇先皇帝屈就你們深入各省,頗為文人學士所不滿。我在位之日,將不允許我們古賢所立之法規有任何變更,人們對我也將無非議。將來我的兒子,我的孫子當上皇位後如何做法,是他們的事;至少我不像萬曆,不會和他一樣做法。[14]

  再從另一個角度來看,儘管自康熙到雍正年間,清廷屢下禁令,禁止天主教傳教,但卻屢禁不止。雖然其中有很多原因,但最重要的是因為天主教的活動總的來說,並沒有對清王朝的統治造成直接威脅,也沒有發生天主教徒武裝反抗朝廷的事件。再加上,朝廷還是必須留有少數精通天文、曆法、測量的傳教士在政府部門任職。因而天主教在禁教期間,傳教士仍然活動于教徒中間,天主教堂依然存在,是禁而不絕。雍正雖然禁止天主教在內地傳教,但對留京的十多位傳教士還是相當寬容,教堂仍由教士居用。

  因此,雖然雍正是主張儒釋道三教合一的人,但對於西方宗教,雍正明顯沒有拉攏的意思,而且還要擔心天主教勢力過大,當然不能允許各省都有天主教的人,尤其是各國天主教會所隱含的西方勢力。這個因素追根究底還是與政治統治相關,與前面所提及的兩個因素,彼此也是互有關聯。雖然雍正也明說「這一點現在雖不必慮及,但當千舟萬船來我海岸時,必將產生擾亂。」但是,在道光年間(1840年)鴉片戰爭爆發前後,外國教會勢力宗教外的侵華行為,以及強迫簽訂多項不平等條約,使得中國的主權遭到破壞,清廷已不能按自己的意志依照司法程序獨立地審理教案,而要受到外國的挾制。這證明了雍正當年禁教顧慮的設想是多方面而長遠的。

  此外,對於雍正禁教的原因,並不單單因耶穌教會是他在儲位鬥爭中政敵的支持者等政治因素而已。據清史學家莊吉發所指出:

促成清世宗禁教的原因很多,其中經濟因素亦不容忽視。康熙年間曾經降旨禁止輸米出海,惟沿海地方輸運米石出海的流弊,仍未盡除。雍正七年(1729年)監察御史伊拉齊經訪查後據折奏稱:「向年原有無賴小民將內地米食私載小船偷出界發賣,希圖重價。因有沿海地方居住之西洋人收買,載入大船出洋。蓋小民偷運,人數無多,夜行晝伏,官兵不及覺查,此往日所有之弊。」伊拉齊又訪得松江府城天主堂內有西洋人名叫畢登榮、莫滿二人居住,扥言養病,常出門拜客,地方士民多有歸其教者,西洋貿易船只往返走洋,難免無偷賣米石之弊。[15]

  但總的來說,天主教在清初康雍時期傳入的勢力與動機,與咸豐、道光二朝以後所傳入的帝國侵略勢力大不相同。因此,清初的禁教原因也與清末禁教的時代背景因素不同。  

  清初時期,清廷雖屢頒諭旨查辦教案,然而紳民與教徒衝突案件,實屬罕見;而且清初國勢鼎盛,中央政權相當鞏固,中外之間並未簽訂不平等條約。西洋傳教士自利馬竇以來,從他們的直接動機和實際行動來看,大多是由於高漲的宗教熱忱催動他們來華的步履,此輩多是虔誠的佈道者,主要目的是為傳布福音,並充當文化使者的角色,在明知清廷已下令禁教,傳教士們仍甘願冒險犯難,以傳播福音,並未恃條約為庇護,其傳教事業也並未滲入殖民侵略性質,尤不至於威脅中國人民的尊嚴與權益。

  但清季咸豐、道光二朝以降,清廷仇教排外的主要原因就不同了:傳統儒家的正邪觀念與闢異端的精神,是中國士大夫仇教的思想背景;而傳教士進入內地後,威脅縉紳以維護傳統文化為己任的尊嚴及其在社會上的特殊地位與權益。再加上傳教士倚恃不平等條約深入內地傳教,並干涉地方行政,其傳教事業遂滲入侵略性質。

  雖然在清初時期,由於基督教與中國文化的沖撞,清廷採取了「禁教」政策。其後的一百多年,統治者用「閉關鎖國」的方法,「鞏固」老大天朝,而西方國家卻進行了轟轟烈烈的工業革命。當十八世紀末,傳教士再一次扣響中國大門之時,中西雙方的實力和地位已不可同日而語了。有了強大的國家實力作後盾,西方傳教士徹底放棄了利馬竇時代謙遜忍讓的態度,盛氣凌人地獲取了在華傳教的特權。雖然仍以虔誠、正直,以傳播福音為唯一宗旨的傳教士大有人在,但在鴉片戰爭的硝煙中,最引人注目的還是「用戰爭把中國開放給基督」的狂妄叫囂。

  鴉片戰爭是中國歷史上的一個重要轉折點,帝國主義的侵略打斷了中國社會自身的歷史進程,用大砲轟開了中國禁教之門,也改變了基督教在華傳播的狀況及其作用,傳教問題經常成為中西衝突甚至戰爭的導火線。在公元1842年,英國侵略軍強迫中國政府簽訂的第一個不平等條約──《南京條約》中便規定:「耶穌、天主教原係為善之道,自後有傳教者來到中國,一體保護。」1844年,中美簽訂《望廈條約》,第17款寫明:除了傳教士能在五口傳教外,「還可以建立教堂」。在這些不平等條約的庇護下,基督教各派,在口岸城市迅速傳布。然而,外國傳教士並不滿足於僅在口岸城市傳教,他們仍以各種形式私自潛入內地傳教。

  咸豐八年(1858年),法國藉傳教自由權為名,聯合英國,悍然發動了第二次鴉片戰爭。在侵略列強的砲口之下,驚慌失措的清政府被迫分別與俄、美、英、法等國簽訂《天津條約》,其中都對傳教事項作有規定。雖文字措詞不盡相同,但主旨都是要求開放讓基督教自由傳教,中國官方予以保護,不得苛待禁阻。自此,「教禁」大開,外國人可以在中國土地上自由傳教。到了咸豐十年(1860年),英、法、俄等國又分別強迫清政府訂立《北京條約》,除了重申《天津條約》中有關教務方面的規定外,法國傳教士還感不足,擔任使團翻譯的孟振生在《中法北京續約》的中文本中還私自添上了「並任法國傳教士在各省租賣田地,建造自便」的字句(這在條約法文本中是沒有的)。外國傳教士不但利用不平等條約獲得了購置田產的自由,並且強迫清政府同意將給還教堂舊址的內容寫進條約中。因此,第二次鴉片戰爭後,基督教在全國各地迅速發展,中國內地門戶向西方宗教全面洞開,實際上是侵華列強通過英法聯軍之役而攫得的權益。

  再看看當時其他傳教士的活動情形,由於傳教士長期在華活動,了解中國的語言、歷史和文化,掌握中國官場的內幕,因而英國東印度公司經常雇用傳教士參與鴉片貿易。鴉片戰爭爆發後,許多傳教士乾脆直接受雇於侵略軍,為本國政府利益服務。也有傳教士參與了戰爭,提供或搜集軍事情報,並以堅船利砲為後盾,利用不平等條約的特權,加速了傳教活動。甚至有傳教士直接參與政治活動,直接充任侵略軍的官員或譯員,在談判桌上為本國爭取好處。至於以各種藉口和身分參與政務者,或是以學術研究為名收集中國政治、經濟情報者更是司空見慣之事,僅從脅迫清廷訂立不平等條約的事局當中,即可見其一斑。

  此時期在華活動的傳教士,不再僅靠教會組織,除了從軍、從政外,還有與致力於殖民掠奪的商人相連結,而直接得到商人的資助和供養,甚至親自參與商務活動。由於傳教士與商人的密切活動,使其在總體上互補互促,相得益彰,「商戰」、「教戰」聲威并狀。因此,鴉片戰爭前後,傳教士所充當的實際角色,由原本單一變為多重,除了「教」而外,亦「商」、亦「軍」、亦「政」。傳教士的參政,不僅僅限於簽約談判以及供職服務于各國政府,還表現在以多種身分和方式對中國政務的直接干涉。這在以後的教案中表現的很明顯,顯然此時傳教士在中國社會的作用與腳色已發生根本性的轉變,他們在中國披著傳教的外衣,專事欺壓中國人民,以不平等條約謀取私利,壓榨中國,更增加了基督教的侵略性。這與清初康雍時期,甘於冒險犯難來華佈教的傳教士不可同日而語。[16]

  當年雍正禁教時所說的「這一點現在雖不必慮及,但當千舟萬船來我海岸時,必將產生擾亂。」的顧慮竟不幸在一百多年後成真了。

  雖然本文主要為探究雍正的宗教觀,以彰顯雍正對西方宗教的態度。但在涉及天主教遭雍正禁教的原因時,又不免要提及清初康熙與羅馬教廷的「禮儀之爭」,以及清初與清末禁教背景因素的差異。但因與本論文的研究主題並無直接的關係,以及本附錄純為補充說明,以令讀者對雍正除了在佛教方面的了解外,也能從另一種角度來看雍正對於西方宗教的態度,故筆者未能搜集更多的直接史料來作天主教方面進一步的論證。因此,特別說明,本文中所引資料,多為現代人的著作。[17]


[1] 參本文第二章第一節〈清朝前期的宗教策略〉。

[2] 明清之際,朝廷原本不反對天主教等西方宗教的傳播,是因為明代時期,以義大利人利瑪竇為代表的耶穌會傳教士,在中國逐漸了打開了局面,利瑪竇為了順應廣大漢民族原有的多神信仰與祭天、祭祖、祭孔等傳統的宗教習俗,而入鄉隨俗將「天主教儒學化」,使天主教的教義能適應中國的國情與宗教習俗,利用儒家經典的文字來解釋基督教義,平緩文字義理上的差異(此與東晉道安法師以老莊玄學解釋般若思想,而產生的『格義佛教』有雷同之處),減少西方宗教進入中國的阻力,使得天主教能在中國順利傳播。但利瑪竇去世後,龍華民接替了主教職務,他一改利瑪竇對中國傳統宗教順應的態度,多次著書說明中國人信奉的天並非基督教的上帝,而是自然神,一再挑明兩教間的差異與優劣,終於引發西方基督教文化與中國傳統文化之間的衝突,便是明朝歷史上有名的「南京教案」(明萬曆四十四年,公元1616年),成為中國教案之始。到清初時期,原本自明末基督教東傳以來,中國的傳教活動一直由葡萄牙支持的耶穌會控制。17世紀中葉以後,葡萄牙國是衰落,西班牙支持的多明我會、方濟各會,以及法國支持的外方傳教會相繼進入中國。這些傳教士多不懂中文,又不了解中國的國情,不能理解利瑪竇當時「天主教儒學化」的苦心,不滿耶穌會在中國的傳教策略,並對耶穌會的一些寬容措施提出了非難,堅持天主教一神教的教義,再加上羅馬教廷的僵硬政策,發布禁令禁止中國教徒祭天、祭祖、祭孔,以及其他一些涉及民俗的活動或祭祀禮儀,要求中國的天主教徒嚴守天主教戒律。羅馬教皇此舉無異宣佈中國的天主教徒必須放棄本民族的文化傳統與信仰。於是禮儀之爭演化成為兩種文化、兩個民族以致清廷與羅馬教廷的全面對抗。羅馬教皇的固執與傲慢,使得兩者間的衝突越演越烈,教皇一再的重申禁令,從而挑起了這場「中國禮儀之爭」。最後終於激起了康熙帝的憤怒,推行全面禁教的政策,這「禮儀之爭」即是天主教在中國招致禁教的起因;但很明顯,教義之爭的背後已帶上了列強爭奪勢力範圍的陰影。有關《康熙與羅馬使節關係文書》,對於中國的敬天、祭孔、祀祖等禮節習俗辯駁情形,以及諭旨和書信等等史料,由北京故宮博物院文獻館所輯之《文獻叢編》,曾刊選14件,俱為康熙處理天主教教案的原始資料。

[3] 參張澤著《清代禁教期的天主教》,台北:光啟出版社,1992,頁11~12。

[4] 參穆啟蒙.侯景文譯《中國天主教史》,台北:光啟出版社,1971,頁97。

[5] 張澤《清代禁教期的天主教》,1992,頁30。

[6] 對於蘇努一族所受到的殘害,筆者只是略為敘述而已,多數的天主教論著也都是站在「教友蒙難」的立場描述此事。詳見徐宗澤《中國天主教傳教史概論》(收錄於《民國叢書 第二編11哲學.宗教類》,上海書局據中華書局1933年影印本)頁245~253。以及張澤《清代禁教期的天主教》,1992,頁42~47;穆啟蒙.侯景文譯《中國天主教史》,1971,頁97。

[7] 參張澤著《清代禁教期的天主教》,台北:光啟出版社,1992,頁42;以及穆啟蒙.侯景文譯《中國天主教史》,1971,頁97;徐宗澤《中國天主教傳教史概論》(出版項目同上注)頁247。

[8] 參莊吉發〈清代教案史料的搜集與編纂〉,收錄於《清代史料論述》(一),台北:文史哲出版社,1979,頁142。原文引自《硃批諭旨》。

[9] 參馮爾康《雍正傳》,1992,頁467,原書引自《雍正朝起居注》,五年四月出八日摺;並參閱《陳垣學術論文集.雍乾間奉天主教之宗室》,中華書局,1980年版。

[10] 參馮爾康《雍正傳》,1992,頁467。

[11] 參雍正五年農曆四月初八上諭,另參張澤著《清代禁教期的天主教》,台北:光啟出版社,1992,頁32與46。

[12] 此封書信內容,筆者整理自張澤《清代禁教期的天主教》,台北:光啟出版社,1992,頁32~33。以及杜文凱編〈有關雍正和天主教的幾封信〉,收錄於《清代西人見聞錄》,中國人民大學出版社,1985,頁144~146。

[13] 杜文凱編〈有關雍正和天主教的幾封信〉,收錄於《清代西人見聞錄》,中國人民大學出版社,1985,頁144~146。

[14] 張澤《清代禁教期的天主教》,1992,頁31。

[15] 莊吉發〈清代教案史料的搜集與編纂〉,收錄於《清代史料論述》(一),台北:文史哲出版社,1979,頁143~144。

[16] 參董叢林著《龍與上帝──基督教與中國傳統文化》,北京:生活.讀書.新知三聯書店,1992,頁135~141。

[17] 本附錄資料整理自以下諸書:馮爾康《雍正傳》,1992,頁465~469。楊啟樵《雍正帝及其密摺制度研究》,1985,頁276~279。莊吉發〈清代教案史料的搜集與編纂〉,收錄於《清代史料論述》(一),1979,頁142~144。以及牟鍾鑒、張踐著《中國宗教通史》,2000,頁943~948、1002~1006。杜文凱編《清代西人見聞錄.有關雍正和天主教的幾封信》,1985,頁144~146。徐宗澤《中國天主教傳教史概論》,1933,頁245~253。張澤《清代禁教期的天主教》,1992,頁42~47。穆啟蒙.侯景文譯《中國天主教史》,1971,頁97。董叢林《龍與上帝──基督教與中國傳統文化》,1992,頁135~141。詳細出版項目參閱本文所附之【徵引暨參考書目】。感謝黃運喜老師提供部分有關天主教的相關書目。

 

 

 

2008年9月10日 星期三

The Diary of Matthew Ricci, in Matthew Ricci, China in the Sixteenth Century, trans Louis Gallagher, (New York: Random House, 1942, 1970)

from The Diary of Matthew Ricci, in Matthew Ricci, China in the Sixteenth Century, trans Louis Gallagher, (New York: Random House, 1942, 1970), as excerpted in Mark A. Kishlansky, Sources of World History, Vol. 1 (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), p. 269-273

[Kishlansky Introduction] Matteo Ricci (1552-1610 CE) was born into a noble Italian family. At the age of 16 he was sent to Rome to study law but became more interested in the new science that was sweeping Western Europe. He studied mathematics and astronomy and then petitioned to join the Jesuits. He was sent on a Jesuit mission to the Far East and studied for the priesthood in east India. He was assigned the difficult task of organizing a mission to China, a task at which earlier Jesuit missionaries had failed. Ricci learned the Chinese language with such proficiency that he persuaded officials to allow him into the country where he taught Chinese intellectuals about mathematics and science and published the first six books of Euclid's Elements in Chinese. After a long delay he was finally allowed to enter the closed City of Peking in 1601, where he stayed for the rest of his life teaching science, mathematics, and Christianity to Chinese intellectuals.

Ricci's most important published work was his History of the Introduction of Christianity into China. But the journals that he kept and edited for publication allow one of the few glimpses of an outsider's view of Chinese society and government during a period when China was closed to foreign visitors. In this selection Ricci describes Chinese government.

We shall touch upon this subject only insofar as it has to do with the purpose of our narrative. It would require a number of chapters, if not of whole books, to treat in full detail... Chinese imperial power passes on from father to son, or to other royal kin as does our own. Two or three of the more ancient kings are known to have bequeathed the throne to successors without out royal relationship rather than to their sons, whom they judged to be unfitted to rule. More than once, however., it has happened that the people, growing weary of an inept ruler, have stripped him of his authority and replaced him with someone preeminent for character and courage whom they henceforth recognized as their legitimate King. It may be said in praise of the Chinese that. ordinarily they would prefer to die an honorable death rather than swear allegiance to a usurping monarch. In fact, there is a proverb extant among their philosophers, which reads: "No woman is moral who has two husbands, nor any vassal faithful to two lords."

There are no ancient laws in China under which the republic is governed in perpetuum, such as our laws of the twelve tables and the Code of Caesar. Whoever succeeds in getting possession of the throne, regardless of his ancestry, makes new laws according to his own way of thinking. His successors on the throne are obliged to enforce the laws which he promulgated as founder of the dynasty, and these laws cannot be changed without good reason....

***

The extent of their kingdom is so vast. its borders so distant, and their utter lack of knowledge of a transmaritime world is so complete that the Chinese imagine the whole world as included in their kingdom. Even now, as from time beyond recording, they call their Emperor, Thiencu, the Son of Heaven, and because they worship Heaven as the Supreme Being, the Son of Heaven and the Son of God are one and the same. In ordinary speech, he is referred to as Hoamsi, meaning supreme ruler or monarch, while other and subordinate rulers are called by the much inferior title of Guam.

Only such as have earned a doctor's degree or that of licentiate are admitted to take part in the government of the kingdom, and due to the interest of the magistrates and of the King him self there is no lack of such candidates. Every public office is therefore fortified with and dependent on the attested science, prudence, and diplomacy of the person assigned to it whether he be taking office for the first time or is already experienced in the conduct of civil life. This integrity of life is prescribed by... law... and for the most part it is lived up to, save in the case of such as are prone to violate the dictates of justice from human weakness and from lack of religious training among the gentiles. All magistrates, whether they belong to the military or to the civil congress, are called Quon-fu, meaning commander or president, though their honorary or unofficial title is Lau-ye or Lau-sie, signifying lord or father. The Portuguese call the Chinese magistrates. mandarins, probably from mandando, mando mandare, to order or command, and they are now generally known by this title in Europe.

Though we have already stated that the Chinese form of government. is monarchical, it must be evident from what has been said, and it will be made clearer by what is to come, that it is to some extent an aristocracy. Although all legal statutes inaugurated by magistrates must be confirmed by the King in writing on the written petition presented to him, the King himself makes no final decision in important matters of state without consulting the magistrates or considering their advice....

***

Tax returns, impost, and other tribute, which undoubtedly exceed a hundred and fifty million a year, as is commonly said, do not go into the Imperial Exchequer, nor can the king dispose of this income as he pleases. The silver, which is the common currency, is placed in the public treasuries, and the returns paid in rice are placed in the warehouses belonging to the government. The generous allowance made for the support of the royal family and their relatives, for the palace eunuchs and the royal household, is drawn from the national treasury. In keeping with the regal splendor and dignity of the crown, these annuities are large, but each individual account is determined and regulated by law. Civil and military accounts and expenses of all government departments are paid out of this national treasury, and the size of the national budget is far in excess of what Europeans might imagine. Public buildings, the palaces of the King and of his relations, the upkeep of city prisons and fortresses, and the renewal of all kinds of war supplies must be met by the national treasury, and in a kingdom of such vast dimensions the program of building and of restoration is continuous. One would scarcely believe that at times even these enormous revenues are not sufficient to meet. the expenses. When this happens, new taxes are imposed to balance the national budget.

Relative to the magistrates in general, there are two distinct orders or grades. The first and superior order is made up of the magistrates who govern the various courts of the royal palace, which is considered to be a model for the rule of the entire realm. The second order includes all provincial magistrates or governors who rule a province or a city. For each of these orders of magistrates, there are five or six large books containing the governmental roster of the entire country. These books are for sale throughout the kingdom. They are being continually revised, and the revision, which is dated twice a month in the royal city of Peking, is not very difficult because of the singular typographical arrangement in which they are printed. The entire contents of these books consist of nothing other than the current lists of the names, addresses, and grades of the court officers of the entire government, and the frequent revision is necessary if the roster is to be kept up to date. In addition to the daily changes, occasioned by deaths, demotions, and dismissals in such an incredibly long list of names, there are the frequent departures of some to visit their homes at. stated periods. We shall say more later on of this last instance, which is occasioned by the custom requiring every magistrate to lay aside his official duties and return to his home for three full years, on the death of his father or his mother. One result of these numerous changes is that there are always a great many in the city of Peking awaiting the good fortune of being appointed to the vacancies thus created.

Besides the classes or orders of the magistrates already described and many others which we shall pass over because they differ but little from our own, there are two special orders never heard of among our people. These are the Choli and the- Zauli, each consisting of sixty or more chosen philosophers. all prudent men arid tried. who have -already given exceptional proof of their fidelity to the King and to the realm. These two orders are reserved by the King for business of greater moment pertaining to the royal court or to the provinces, and by him they are entrusted with the great responsibility of carrying with it both respect and authority. They correspond in some manner to what we would call keepers of the public conscience, inasmuch as they inform the King as often as they see fit, of any infraction of the law in any part of the entire kingdom. No one is spared from their scrutiny, even the highest magistrates, as they do not hesitate to speak, even though it concerns the King himself or his household. If they had the power of doing something more than talking, or rather of writing, and if they were not wholly dependent upon the King whom they admonish, their particular office would correspond to that of the Lacedemonian Ephors. And yet they do their duty so thoroughly that they are a source of wonder to outsiders and a good example for imitation. Neither King nor magistrates can escape their courage and frankness, and even when they arouse the royal wrath to such an extent that the king becomes severely angry with them they will never desist from their admonitions and criticism until some remedy has been applied to the public evil against which they are inveighing. In fact. when the grievance is particularly acute they are sure to put a sting into their complaints and to show no partiality where crown or courts are concerned. This same privilege of offering written criticism is also granted by law to any magistrate and even to a private citizen, but for the most part it is exercised only by those to whose particular office it pertains. Numerous copies are made of such written documents submitted to the crown and of the answers made to them In this way, what goes on in the royal headquarters is quickly communicated to every corner of the country. These documents are also compiled in book form, and whatever of their content is deemed worthy of handing down to posterity is transcribed into the annals of the king's regime.

***

Besides the regular magistrates there are in the royal palace various other organizations, instituted for particular purposes. The most exalted of these is what is known as the Han-lin-yuen, made up of selected doctors of philosophy and chosen by examination. Members of this cabinet have nothing to do with public administration but outrank all public officials in dignity of office. Ambition for a place in this select body means no end of labor and of sacrifice. These are the King's secretaries, who do both his writing and his composing. They edit and compile the royal annals and publish the laws and statutes of the land. The tutors of kings and princes are chosen from their number. They are entirely devoted to study and there are grades within the cabinet which are determined by the publications of its members. Hence they are honored with the highest dignity within the regal court. but not beyond it...

***

The Chinese can distinguish between their magistrates by the parasols they use as protection against the sun when they go out in public. Some of these are blue and others yellow. Sometimes for effect they will have two or three of these sunshades, but only one if their rank does not permit of more. They may also be recognized by their mode of transportation in public. The lower ranks ride on horseback, the higher are carried about on the shoulders of their servants in gestatorial chairs. The number of carriers also has significance of rank; some are only allowed four, others may have eight. There are other ways also of distinguishing the magistracy and the rank of dignity therein; by banners and pennants, chains and censer cups, and by the number of guards who give orders to make way for the passage of the dignitary. The escort itself is held in such high esteem by the public that no one would question their orders. Even in crowded city everyone gives way at the sound of their voices with a spontaneity that correspond to the rank of the approaching celebrity.

Before closing this chapter on Chinese public administration, it would seem to be quite worthwhile recording a few more things in which this people differ from Europeans. To begin with, it seems to be quite remarkable when we stop to consider it, that in a kingdom of almost limitless expanse and innumerable population and abounding in copious supplies of every description, though they have a well-equipped army and navy that could easily conquer the neighboring nations, neither the King nor his people ever think of waging a war of aggression They are quite content with what they have and are not ambitious of conquest. In this respect they are much different from the people of Europe, who are frequently discontent with their own governments and covetous of what others enjoy. While the nations of the West seem to be entirely consumed with the idea of supreme domination, they cannot even preserve what their ancestors have bequeathed them, as the Chinese have done through a period of some thousand of years....

***

Another remarkable fact and quite worthy of note as marking a difference from the West, is that the entire kingdom is administered by the Order of the Learned, commonly known as The Philosophers. The responsibility for the orderly management of the entire realm is wholly and completely committed to their charge and care. The army, both officers and soldiers, hold them in high respect and show them the promptest obedience and deference, and not infrequently the military are disciplined by them as a schoolboy might be punished by his master. Policies of war are formulated and military; questions are decided by the Philosophers only, and their advice and counsel has more weight with the King than that of the military leaders. In fact very few of these and only on rare occasions, are admitted to war consultations. Hence it follows that those who aspire to be cultured frown upon war and would prefer the lowest rank in the philosophical order to the highest in the military, realizing that the Philosophers far excel military leaders in the good will and the respect of the people and in opportunities of acquiring wealth.

2008年9月9日 星期二

Wiki Christainity from Ming to Qing

Christainity in China,from Ming to Qing

Western missionaries paid visits to China started as early as 16 century.During Ming Dynasty , scholars such as Matteo Ricci, [1]Johann Adam Schall von Bell [2] and Ferdinand Verbiest, plus many others not as well known missionaries.Beside bringing christianity into China,they were bringing western knowledge as well,such as mathematic,geography, astronomy, metallurgy, and modern weapons making. All the prominent missionaries were given high positions in the Ming royal court, and were highly respected by Ming emperors and the bureaucrat, especially Matteo Ricci [3], who was being granted a burial place in the Royal Capital by the Ming Emperor[4] himself. Scientific books[5] brought into China by the missionaries were being translated into Chinese language. Vice versa, many books on Confucius teaching were being translated and introduced into the West.

However, when the Manchu conquerers took over the Forbidden City, they not only suspended all the cultural exchanges between East and west, they went much further by shutting down all the sea ports, burning every seagoing ships, and turning the whole coastal line into no man's zone. When Manchu was turning back the clock, England and Europe were going through Industrial Revolution and renaissance. In early 1700s, Great Britain[6] became a world power, an empire on which the sun never set.

When European powers were acquiring enormous riches through trading(including slaves trading)and conquests of various small countries, Manchu rulers had shut its door on the West for the next 200 plus years.


In 1743,British Commodore George Anson [7] was contemptuous of China's military power,and wrote: "in artifice, falsehood and an attachment to all kinds of lucre, many of the Chinese are difficult to be paralleled by any other people." which pretty much help shaped England's understanding of 16 century China.

In 1793,Lord Macartney,[8]had made another observation on the weaknesses and the falling apart of the Manchu Dynasty:"tyranny of a handful of Tartars over more than 300 million of Chinese".

- After Napoleon was defeated,European powers then began the assault on Manchu Dynasty,whose military machine[9] was still consisted of bow and arrow,knife and spear,when Europeans were already using machine guns and high explosive shells on battle fields. On 1840-1843,with the first Opium War , Manchu suffered one of the most humiliating defeat in the hands of the Western powers; and it was the beginning of many more defeats to come.


By the middle to late 1800's, the "foreign devil" opponents were quite different. The English and French regulars and marines were much better discplined than the Russian cossacks of the 1600's. Muskets and Rifles of much higher rate of fire also were available. More importantly, the initial combat were done along the coast. The 74-gun third-rate line-of-battle ships like HMS Wellesley [10] (built in India) simply laid waste to Chinese coastal guns and troops near the shore. The return fire from Chinese coastal artilleries did not have the muzzle velocity to penetrate the couple feet of oak that made up the sides of the British/Indian ships. During the 1st Opium War, British troops did not venture much beyond the protection of their naval guns; the naval guns probably claimed the bulk of Chinese combat casulties. By the time of the 2nd Opium War, rifles with percussion cap cartriges became available, with even higher firing rate than flint-locks. So the Manchu/Mongol bannermen really did not have much of a chance even in-land. The Qing cavalry simply got shot to pieces before their crossbows were even in range.

By the time of the Boxer Rebellion, when the Qing troops fought both the rebels and the foreigners from time to time, the Allied army had gattling guns in addition to repeating rifles (like Winchester)[11] and artillery that fired shells (not just cannon balls). The fighting became even more lopsided. -

* Some eastern scholar suggest Opium[12] played a major part in the down fall af Manchu Dynasty. Ellen N. La Motte wrote:Opium was now contraband, but the fact had no effect on the quantity introduced into the country, which rose to 5,000 chests in 1820; 16,000 chests in 1830; 20,000 chests in 1838, and 70,000 chests in 1858." Such a large quantity of importation of opium would have require equally large amount of silver ingots in exchange.

Nearly 100% of the opium came from British East India Company in India,and the profit from the opium trade end up in the Bank of England.


10 Wednesday 09

[edit] References

1. ^ "Matteo Ricci""catholic encyclopedia on Matteo Ricci's life"
2. ^ "Johann Adam Schall von Bell""Another great missionary that went to china to spread the words of gosbel"
3. ^ "Chinese version of the first six books of Euclid's Elements""From about 1600 until the suppression in 1773, Jesuits were practically the sole source of Chinese knowledge about Western astronomy, geometry and trigonometry"
4. ^ "Geoff Wade""Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu, Geoff Wade's translation of & commentary on texts from the Veritable Records of the history of Ming Dynasty"
5. ^ "Euclid's Elements""Euclid's Elements have been studied for centuries - in fact until the 20 th century it was the most common reprinted book after the Bible."
6. ^ "Great Britain"
7. ^ "Harry G. Gelber""a Professor of History and Political Science and Visiting Research Fellow, Asian Research Centre, London School of Economics and Political Economy."
8. ^ [ http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1792macartney.html "Modern History Sourcebook"]"Lord Macartney told the Chinese legate that he would not perform the kowtow unless a high officer of state would kowtow before a picture of the King of England."
9. ^ [aer2.sbc.edu.hk/~wcc/China/DECLINE_1.DOC "Sweet Briar college history document"] "DECLINE OF THE QING DYNASTY,INFERIOR WEAPONS"
10. ^ "WOODEN WALLS""When she returned from this service, some 27 cannon balls were found embedded in her sides"
11. ^ "Winchester Repeating Rifle"
12. ^ "ELLEN N. LA MOTTE" "HISTORY OF THE OPIUM TRADE IN CHINA"

2008年9月7日 星期日

Wiki boxer rebellion long term short term cause.

*Western missionaries paid visits to China started as early as 16 century.During [[Ming Dynasty]] 明朝 ,great [[scholars]] such as [[Matteo Ricci]], (1552 – 1610) 利瑪竇,[[Johann Adam Schall von Bell]] (1591年-1666年), 湯若望 ,and [[Ferdinand Verbiest]],(1623-1688) 南懷仁 ,plus many others not as well known missionaries.Beside spreading the words of [[Christ]],they were spreading western knowledge as well,such as mathematic,geography,astronomy,metallurgy,and modern weapons making.All the prominent missionaries were given extreme high positions in the [[Ming]] royal court,and were highly respected by Ming emperors and the bureaucrat,especially Matteo [[Ricci]],who was being granted a burial place in the Royal Capital by none other than the [[Ming Emperor]] himself.

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In less then 250 years,the high social status enjoyed by the western missionaries had turned from heaven to hell.The [[Manchu]] rulers,unlike the [[Ming]] emperors who were the true followers of [[Confucius]] Teaching,had stopped the interaction and exchange between two great cultures,that of the East and the West.

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The Manchu rulers,whose ancestors were primitive tribal nomads and pastoral farmers and slaves chieftains,decided to permanently shutting the door on western culture and religion,by systematically killing foreign missionaries and their native converts,burn down the churches and Bibles,in the end causing the downfall and collapse of their own empire,which lasted only 260 years.

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==Short Term Causes==

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*'''Harry G. Gelber''' ,is the author[http://www.johnderbyshire.com/Reviews/China/gelber.html Harry G. Gelberis] "a Professor of History and Political Science and Visiting Research Fellow, Asian Research Centre, London School of Economics and Political Economy."

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of The Dragon and the Foreign Devils: China and the World, 1100 B.C. to the Present

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In 1743,[[British]] Commodore George Anson was contemptuous of China's military power,and wrote: "in artifice, falsehood and an attachment to all kinds of lucre, many of the Chinese are difficult to be paralleled by any other people." which pretty much help shaped England's understanding of 16 century China,when [[Britain]] was on its way to becoming the [[Empire]] that the Sun never set.

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In 1793,Lord Macartney,had made another observation on the weaknesses and the falling apart of the primitive Manchu Dynasty:"tyranny of a handful of Tartars over more than 300 million of Chinese (read Han)".

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After Napoleon was defeated,European powers then began the assault on this old and tired Manchu Dynasty,whose military machine was still consisted of bow and arrow,knife and spear,when Europeans were already using machine guns and high power cannons on battle fields.On 1840-1843,with the first Opium War , Manchu suffered one of the most humiliating defeat in the hands of the Western powers; and it was the beginning of many more defeats to come.

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